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Cockburn

2023-07-28T17:02:31Z

PeterWilson: Created page with "'''Cockburn''' is a surname, now more common perhaps in Scotland than in England. It is derived from a place-name in the Scots Borders county (formerly Berwicksbir..."

'''Cockburn''' is a [[surname]], now more common perhaps in Scotland than in England. It is derived from a [[place-name]] in the Scots [[Borders]] county (formerly Berwicksbire). It is normally ponounced 'CO-burn' ({{IPA|'kəʊ bərn|}}, "apparently to veil the imagined indelicacy of the first syllablr" ([[A dictionary of English place names]]).

The name is sometimes confused with [[Cochrane]]. Don't mix them up!

[[Category:names]]
[[Category:pronunciation]]

Eponyms A-M

2023-07-28T16:36:13Z

PeterWilson:

AWE also has an article like this in [[Eponyms N-Z]].

'''Preliminary note''': An '''eponym''' is usually defined as ‘a name derived from the name of a (real or mythical) person’ (or as ‘the name of the person from which such a name is derived’). (For more see [[eponym]].) However, the words listed on this page, though all derived from the names of (real or mythical) persons, are not names but [[common noun]]s, [[verb]]s, or [[adjective]]s. In the absence of any term meaning ‘word derived from the name of a person’ AWE has decided, rather than coin a new term, to use '''eponym''' in an extended sense with this meaning.

The words for some objects, activities, etc., derive from the name of an individual with whom the object, activity, etc., is particularly associated. For example, the word ''''boycott'''', meaning 'the refusal to have any dealings with a person or organisation as a protest against their behaviour' - as when, e.g., one is unwilling to buy the products of a company because one strongly disapproves of its activities or policies - comes from the name of an Irishman, '''Capt. C.C. Boycott''' (1832-1897), who was land agent for the Earl of Erne in county Mayo in Ireland, and was shunned as part of a campaign of protest when he would not lower the rents of the properties for which he was responsible on the Earl's estates. (''''Boycott'''' is also used as a [[verb]]).

::There is also the use of the names of distinguished individuals which are applied, as [[epithet]]ical labels, to the titles of institutions - which are 'named after' them. The '''Albert Hall''' in London and the '''[[Carnegie]] Hall''' in New York are examples - as are the '''[[Nobel]] Prize''' in Sweden, the '''Fields medal''' (for mathematics) and the '''[[T.S.Eliot]] Prize for Poetry''' awarded in the UK; '''Guggenheim Museum'''s in different countries, '''Gulbenkian Theatres''' and arts facilities on various campuses; '''Kennedy''' and '''La Guardia airport'''s in New York; '''Buckingham Palace''' and '''Somerset House''' in London; and countless street names throughout the world, with a myriad further examples. Individual buildings in large Institutions, particularly of research and [[HE]], are often named after distinguished people who have worked there, or are otherwise connected to them: the University of Hull contains the [[Larkin]] Building, named after the poet and former University Librarian; the [[Wilberforce]] and [[Venn]] buildings, named after former citizens of Hull, and the Ferens, Gulbenkian, Allam and Blackburn Buildings, named after benefactors. Such names are too many to be dealt with individually or comprehensively in AWE.

Sometimes the individual's name, which is always written with a lower-case initial letter, is slightly changed, e.g., by the addition of a [[suffix]] - as in ''''caesarean'''' and ''''malapropism'''' (see further below). Note that aristocratic titles were traditionally the names of places which provided estates for the holder of the title; so that such names as '''cardigan''' and '''sandwich''' may also, or alternatively, be listed under [[Words Derived From Names of Places]].

Here, in alphabetical order, are some more examples of words derived from the names of people:

*An '''albert''' is a type of chain used to attach a pocket watch to a waistcoat or some other article of clothing. It derives its name from '''Prince Albert''' (1819-1861), consort of Queen [[Victoria]] (1819-1901, reigned 1837-1901).

*An '''angstrom''' is a unit of length used in the measurement of very small distances such as the wavelengths of electro-magnetic radiation: it is equal to 0.1 nanometer, i.e., one billionth of a metre. The '''angstrom''' is named after '''Anders Jonas Ångström''' (1814-1874), a Swedish physicist who was one of the founders of the science of spectroscopy.

*An '''aubrietia''' – also spelt '''aubrieta''' or '''aubretia''', but always pronounced aw-BREE-sher, {{IPA|ɔː 'briː ʃə}} – is a trailing plant with purple flowers. It is named after Claude '''Aubriet''' (?1665-1742), an illustrator and botanical artist, who worked at the Jardin du Roi in Paris and was the royal botanical painter from 1707 to 1735.

*'''Bakelite''' – the word is pronounced as three [[syllable]]s, {{IPA|'beɪ kə ,laɪt}} – is a durable plastic made from phenol and formaldehyde and used, e.g., in telephone receivers and many household articles. It is named after its inventor H.L.A. '''Baekeland''' (1863-1944), a Belgian chemist who emigrated to the United States in 1889.

*A '''biro''' is a type of plastic ballpoint pen: it takes its name from Laszlo '''Biró''' (1899-1985), a Hungarian journalist, who worked with his brother Gyórgy, a chemist, to develop the first workable ballpoint pen.

*The word '''bloomers''' (always in the [[plural]]) may be used in informal speech as a word for women’s baggy knickers. The word, which used to be used to refer to loose trousers gathered at the knee and worn by women for cycling and similar activities, derives from Mrs Amelia Jenks '''Bloomer''' (1818-1894), an American social reformer who championed women’s rights and was an influential advocate of the wearing by women of loose trousers rather than dresses. (Note that in the [[singular]] '''bloomer''' may be one of three words whose meanings are all unrelated to the above and to each other: a '''bloomer''' may be ''either'' a plant which flowers ''or'' (in British English) a silly mistake ''or'' (also in British English) a medium-sized crusty loaf of bread, with a glazed top marked by a series of parallel notches.)

*'''Bluetooth''', the wireless technology that uses a radio frequency to share data between devices over a short distance, is so named after Harald ‘'''Bluetooth'''’ Gormsson,, who was King of Denmark (c958-c986) and King of Norway (for some years in the 970s). Harald, who united Denmark and Norway, was known for his dead tooth, which was a dark blue colour.

*A '''bougainvillea''' is a widely cultivated climbing plant, native to tropical climates, with small flowers (usually white) and brightly coloured leaves (usually red or purple). It is named after Louis Antoine '''de Bougainville''' (1729-1811), an admiral in the French navy, who was also an explorer and the first Frenchman to circumnavigate the globe (1766-1769): the botanist on '''de''' '''Bougainville'''’s expedition (Philibert Commerçant) was the first European to describe this plant, which he named after the expedition’s leader.

*The [[transitive]] [[verb]] ''''to bowdlerise'''' (or ''''to bowdlerize'''') - pronounced with the stress on the first [[syllable]], which rhymes with 'cloud', {{IPA|ˈbaʊd lə raɪz}} - means: to remove from the text of a play, novel, or other document material that is judged to be obscene, offensive, or in some other way improper, i.e., to '''expurgate''' or '''censor''' the text. The [[verb]] comes from the name of Dr. Thomas '''Bowdler''' (1754-1825), an English physician and philanthropist, who in 1807 published ''The Family Shakespeare'', an expurgated or '''bowdlerised''' version of the text of [[Shakespeare]]'s plays. The text had been edited by '''Bowdler''''s sister, Henrietta Maria (Harriet) '''Bowdler''' (1750-1830), with the intention of producing a version of the plays that would not offend the sensibilities of nineteenth-century women. '''Bowdler''' later produced a '''bowdlerised''' version of Edward Gibbon's ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', which was published posthumously by his nephew, '''Thomas Bowdler, the Younger'''. As well as the [[verb]] ''''to bowdlerise'''' there is also a [[noun]] ''''bowdlerisation'''' (or ''''bowdlerization'''').

*'''Braille''', the system which enables the blind to read and write by representing each letter of the alphabet as a distinctive pattern of raised dots, is named after its French inventor, Louis '''Braille''' (1809-1852), who was himself blind from the age of 3 and taught blind children in the ''Institut National des Jeunes Aveugles'' (National Institute for Blind Children) in Paris.

*A '''brougham''' - pronounced BROO-erm {{IPA|ˈbruː əm}} or BROOM {{IPA|ˈbruːm}} - is a type of horse-drawn carriage which has four or two wheels, an enclosed cabin for the passengers, and a raised open seat at the front for the driver. (The word also used to be applied to a large motor car which had an open compartment at the front for the driver.) The word ''''brougham'''' comes from Peter Henry '''Brougham''', first Baron Brougham and Vaux (1778-1868), who either invented this type of carriage or, more probably, popularised its use. '''Brougham''' was a Scots lawyer who in the course of his long life helped in 1802 to found the ''Edinburgh Review'' and, after moving to London, entered Parliament as a [[Whig]] in 1810, was involved in the struggle against the slave trade, was one of the founders of University College, London (1828), and became [[Lord Chancellor]] (1830-1834).

*'''Buddleia''' (or '''Buddleja'''), the [[genus]] of more than 140 species of flowering shrub, was so named by the great Swedish taxonomist, Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), in honour of Revd. Adam '''Buddle''' (1662-1715), an English clergyman and botanist.

*A '''caesarean''' or '''caesarean section''' is an operation in which the surgeon cuts the walls of the mother's abdomen and uterus in order to deliver her baby. The word is commonly said to come from the name of Roman general, politician, and dictator '''Julius [[Caesar]]''' (101-44 BCE), who was believed to have been born in this way; but it is as likely to be derived directly from the [[past participle]] ''caesus'' of the Latin [[verb]] ''caedere'', 'to cut'. (See further [[Caesarean]].)

*A '''cardigan''' is a knitted jacket buttoned at the front. The word comes from the seventh '''Earl of Cardigan''' (1797-1868), who was an officer in the British cavalry and led the ill-fated charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava (1854).

*A '''Cassandra''' is a person whose predictions of doom are never taken seriously. In Greek mythology '''Cassandra''' was a daughter of the Trojan king Priam and his wife Hecuba: she possessed the gift of prophecy but was fated never to be believed.

*'''Chauvinism''' is extreme and/or aggressive patriotism, though the word is also used, more generally, of (behaviour resulting from) any strong, unwarranted belief in the superiority of a group to which one belongs (e.g., male '''chauvinism'''). '''Chauvinism''' is so called after Nicolas '''Chauvin''', a (probably [[apocryphal]]) French soldier said to have served under Napoleon Bonaparte and to have been famous for his uncritical and enthusiastic patriotism.

*A '''chesterfield''' is ''either'' a large sofa, with back and arms of the same height, often upholstered in leather ''or'' a man’s overcoat, single- or double-breasted, with a velvet collar. Both the sofa and the overcoat are named after members of the '''Chesterfield''' family, the sofa after Philip Dormer Stanhope, '''Fourth Earl of Chesterfield''' (1694-1773), a statesman and writer, who was the first person to commission a sofa of this type, and the overcoat after George Philip Cecil Arthur Stanhope, '''Sixth Earl of Chesterfield''' (1805-1866), a Tory politician and race horse owner, perhaps because his wearing one set a fashion for wearing this type of overcoat.

*A '''dahlia''' ({{IPA| 'deɪ lɪə}}) is a perennial plant with showy flowers and fleshy roots. It is named after the Swedish botanist Anders '''Dahl''' (1751-1789), who was a student of Carl [[Linnaeus]] (1707-1778).

*'''Daltonism''' is another name for colour blindness, especially the inability to distinguish green and red. The condition is named after John Dalton (1766-1844), an English chemist and physicist, who, in addition to significant contributions to these disciplines, was the first person to give an accurate description of colour blindness, a condition from which he suffered.

*A '''davenport''' may be ''either'' a type of desk ''or'' a type of sofa: in Britain a '''davenport''' is a tall narrow desk with drawers at the side and a slanting top for use as a writing surface, but in the United States and Canada it is a large sofa, especially one which may be converted into a bed. The use of the word '''davenport''' to refer to a type of desk comes from a '''Captain Davenport''', who towards the end of the 18h century was the first person to commission a desk of this type, while the use of the word to refer to a type of sofa comes from '''A.H. Davenport and Co'''., a firm, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which made this type of sofa in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

*'''De-gaussing''', a procedure for demagnetizing ships so that they would not detonate magnetic mines, was named after K. F. '''Gauss''' (1777-1855), German mathematician and formulator of two Laws of Magnetism - half of Maxwell's Four Laws - the basis of classical electrodynamics.

*'''Diesel''' (or '''diesel fuel''') is a type of liquid fuel obtained from petroleum by distillation and, when used in an internal combustion engine, ignited not by a spark but by compression. It is named after Rudolf '''Diesel''' (1858-1913), a German engineer who first produced the fuel and invented the '''diesel engine'''.

*The [[adjective]] ''''draconian'''', meaning 'harsh, severe, or very strict' and typically used of laws, penalties, and the like, comes from '''Draco''' (in [[Greek]] δράκων, ''Drakon''), an Athenian lawgiver who in 621 BCE drew up and imposed on the city of Athens a harsh code of laws which prescribed death for almost every offence. ('''Draco'''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s legal code remained in force until the second half of the 590s BCE when the statesman Solon (?638-?559 BCE) replaced it with a more humane code which prescribed the death penalty only for murder.) With an initial capital ''''Draconian'''' means 'of or relating to Draco or his legal code'. Be careful not to confuse the [[adjective]]s ''''draconian'''' and ''''draconic'''': the latter means 'of or relating to a dragon or dragons', and comes from the [[Latin]] ''draco'', a dragon, which in turn is almost a [[transliteration]] of the [[Greek]] word for a dragon, δράκων, ''drakon''.

*A '''[[dunce]]''' is a person who is stupid or slow to learn. The word comes from the great medieval philosopher '''John Duns Scotus''' (c1265-1308): in the sixteenth century his followers, who were by then often regarded as wedded to outmoded forms of thought, were referred to disparagingly as '''Dunsmen''' or '''Dunses'''. A '''dunce cap''' or '''dunce's cap''' was a cone-shaped paper hat which in earlier times was sometimes placed on the head of a child at '''s'''chool if he or she was slow to learn. (Duns Scotus took his name from his birthplace, the town of Duns in Berwickshire [now [[Borders]]] in the Scottish Borders.)

*A '''fedora''' is a type of hat: it is made of soft felt and has an indented crown and a wide brim, often turned down at the front. The hat is named after Princess '''Fédora''' Romazov, the heroine of '''''Fédora''''' (1882), a play by the French dramatist Victorien Sardou (1831-1908). On stage the actress (Sarah Bernhardt) who played the part of Princess '''Fédora''' wore a hat with an indented crown and a wide brim, and the '''fedora''' became, for a time, a very popular type of hat for women. (Cf. '''trilby''' below.)

*The '''foxtrot''', a ballroom dance in 4/4 time with long, flowing movements, is said to have been named after Harry '''Fox''' (1882-1959), an American musical hall artist, whose regular performance on stage of an early version of the dance did much to popularise it.

*A '''freesia''' is a plant native to southern Africa, with white, yellow or pink tubular flowers and sword-like leaves It is named after Friedrich Heinrich Theodor '''Freese''' (1795-1876), a German physician.

*The [[verb]] ‘to '''galvanize'''’ (or ‘to '''galvanise'''’), meaning ''either'' ‘to excite or stimulate to action’ ''or'' ‘to cover (a metal) with a protective coating of zinc by means of an electro-chemical process’, is formed from the name of the Italian physiologist Luigi '''Galvani''' (1737-1798), who observed that muscles contracted when in simultaneous contact with two different metals, a discovery which led to the theory that muscles are controlled by electrical impulses in the nerves and to the invention by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) of the pile battery.

*A '''gardenia''' is a shrub or small tree with large white or pale yellow flowers. It is named after Dr Alexander '''Garden''' (1730-1791), a Scottish-born physician who emigrated as a young man to North America. He was a keen amateur botanist, studying the flora of South Carolina and sending many specimens to the great Swedish botanist Karl [[Linnaeus]] (1707-1778), who named the '''gardenia''' after him.

*The [[adjective]] '''gargantuan''' (pronounced with the stress on the second [[syllable]]) means: huge, enormous. The word tends to be used in the context of food (as in ‘He has a '''gargantuan''' appetite’ or ‘This is a '''gargantuan''' portion’), though it is sometimes found outside this context (as in ‘I have a '''gargantuan''' amount of work to finish before the weekend’). The word comes from the fictional character '''Gargantua''', the central figure in ''The Life of Gargantua and Pantagruel'' (''La vie de Gargantua et de Pantagruel'', 1534), a set of five satirical novels by François Rabelais (?1494-1553). '''Gargantua''' is a gigantic king renowned for his ability to consume great quantities of food and drink.

*The word '''greengage''' may refer ''either'' to a variety of plum which has a green-gold skin and similarly-coloured flesh ''or'' to the tree which bears this fruit (''prunus domestica italica'').. The '''greengage''' owes its name, or at least the second part of its name, to Sir William '''Gage''' (1695-1744), who in 1724 imported the tree to England from France. (You may want to see further [[Gage - gauge]].)

*A '''guillotine''' is an instrument for beheading persons and consists of a heavy blade set between two upright posts. It derives its name from Joseph-Ignace '''Guillotin''' (1738-1814), a French doctor and politician, who did '''not''' invent the instrument but in 1789 in a speech to the [[Estates General]] in Paris argued on humanitarian grounds that it should be used for judicial executions in France. For more see [[Guillotine]]. See also [[guillotine]].

*A '''guppy''' is a small, brightly coloured tropical fish native to the Caribbean and the waters off north South America, and nowadays a popular aquarium fish. It is named after R.J.L. '''Guppy''' (1836-1916), a British-born school inspector on the island of Trinidad and amateur naturalist, who in the 1860s caught a specimen off the coast of Trinidad and sent it to the British Museum in London.

*A '''[[hansom]]''' cab is an older name for what is now usually called a 'taxi[cab]'. It was originally a particular design of two-wheeled carriage drawn by one horse, with the driver seated behind the passenger compartment. The hansom could be seen 'plying for hire' like a modern black cab. The vehicle was designed in essence by the architect of Birmingham Town Hall, Joseph Aloysius '''Hansom''', (1803-1882), a native of York.

*A (little) '''Hitler''' is a person who behaves in an [[authoritarian]] or [[dictator]]ial way, telling others what they must or must not do, even in quite trivial matters and even when he or she has no authority to do so. Adolph '''Hitler''' (1889-1945), whose [[surname]] is used in this expression, was German chancellor (1933) and Führer (leader) (1934-1945); his [[authoritarian]] regime collapsed in 1945 when Germany faced defeat at the end of World War II, and he committed suicide.

*A '''Jacuzzi''' – the word is also spelt without an initial capital - is a type of bath or pool in which a system of underwater jets keeps the water in a constant state of agitation. It is named after two members of the '''Jacuzzi''' family, Candido (1903-1989), who invented the whirlpool pump, and Roy (1943- ), who marketed it.

*A '''jeremiad''' is a long, sorrowful complaint or lamentation. The word comes from the [[Old Testament]] prophet '''Jeremiah''' (7th-6th century BCE), who foretold great evils for the inhabitants of Judah if they did not repent of their sins - see the [[Old Testament]] [[book]]s of ''Jeremiah'' and ''[[Lamentable|Lamentations]] of Jeremiah''. A person who prophesies doom and disaster or denounces the evil ways of his society may be referred to as '''a Jeremiah'''.

*A '''jeroboam''' is a large wine bottle with a capacity four times that of a normal wine bottle. The word, perhaps most commonly used in connection with [[champagne]], comes from '''Jeroboam''', the first king of the northern kingdom of [[Israel]], who reigned towards the end of the tenth century BCE. The choice of name seems to involve a humorous reference to two passages in the [[Old Testament]] (''I Kings'' ch. 11, v. 28 and ''I Kings'' ch. 14, v. 16) in which '''Jeroboam''' is described as a 'mighty man of valour', who 'did sin and who made [[Israel]] to sin'. The names for the other, even larger wine bottles also derive from persons mentioned in the [[Old Testament]]. A '''rehoboam''', with a capacity six times that of a normal wine bottle, is named after '''Rehoboam''' (10th century BCE), one of Solomon's sons and his successor as king of [[Israel]] (see ''1 Kings'' ch. 12 & ch. 14, vv. 21-31 and ''II Chronicles'' chs. 10-12). A '''methuselah''', eight times the size of a normal wine bottle, takes its name from the [[patriarch]] '''Methuselah''', said in ''Genesis'' ch. 5, v. 27 to have lived to be 969 years old; a '''salmanazar''', twelve times the size of a normal wine bottle, is named after '''Shalmaneser''', a ninth century king of Assyria (see ''II Kings'' chs. 17-18), while a '''balthazar''' and a '''nebuchadnezzar''', respectively sixteen and twenty times the size of a normal wine bottle, are both named after rulers of Babylon - '''Balthazar''' or '''Belshazzer''' (see ''[[Daniel]]'' chs. 5 & 8), and his father '''Nebuchadnezzar''' (634-562, reigned 605-562, see ''II Kings'' chs. 24-25 and ''Daniel''). (A wine bottle which has double the capacity of a normal wine bottle is known as a '''magnum''' (from the [[Latin]] [[adjective]] ''magnus'', large).)

*A '''leotard''' is a skin-tight or close-fitting garment which covers the torso, leaving the legs and sometimes also the arms uncovered. Worn by acrobats, gymnasts, and ballet dancers, it derives its name from Jules '''Léotard''' (1838-1870), a French acrobat and trapeze artist (and the inspiration of the 1867 song ''The Daring Young Man on the Flying Trapeze''), who popularised the garment. (Note that in his native language the garment '''Léotard''' popularised is not named after him: in French a '''leotard''' is a ''justaucorps''.)

*A '''Luddite''' is a person who opposes innovation and the use of new technology, especially in an industrial context. The word was first applied to textile workers in Nottingham and adjacent areas who in the second decade of the 19th century rioted and damaged industrial machinery in protest at its introduction, which they believed posed a threat to their livelihoods. '''Luddites''' are so called after Ned '''Ludd''', a (probably [[apocryphal]]) figure said to have been a Leicestershire workman who in 1779 damaged two stocking frames in a fit of anger at the introduction of machinery into his workplace.

*The [[transitive]] [[verb]] '''to lynch''' - the 'y' is pronounced as a short 'i', {{IPA|lɪntʃ}} - is used when an angry crowd takes justice into its own hands and, dispensing with a proper trial, seizes and punishes, usually by hanging, a person thought to be guilty of a crime. The [[etymology]] of the word is disputed, but most probably it comes either from '''Captain William Lynch''' (1742-1820), who in 1780, with the support of his neighbours in Pittsylvania County in Virginia, set up his own court of justice, or from '''Charles Lynch''' (1736-1796), a Justice of the Peace in Virginia, who during the American War of Independence (1775-1783), imprisoned supporters of the British without legal authority. A '''lynch mob''' is a crowd which takes justice into its own hands and punishes a person it believes to be guilty of a crime, and the practice of so doing is sometimes referred to as '''lynch law'''.

*A '''mackintosh''' - also spelt '''macintosh''', and pronounced with the stress on the first [[syllable]], {{IPA|ˈmæk ɪ(''or'' ə)n tɒʃ}} - is a raincoat made from a special type of rubberised cloth and named after its inventor, Charles Macintosh (1760-1843). The word ''''mackintosh'''' may also be used to refer to any type of raincoat, whatever its material.

*A '''madeleine''' is a small sponge cake which takes its name, according to some, from the author of the recipe, '''Madeleine Paulmier''', a cook in the service of Stanislaus I (1677-1766), Duke of Lorraine and exiled King of Poland. For the part played by the smell and taste of a '''madeleine''' in Marcel Proust’s ''À la recherché du temps perdu'' see [[Madeleine - Madeline]].

*A '''[[malapropism]]''' is the unintended misuse of a word by confusing it with another which sounds similar. The word comes from the fictional '''Mrs Malaprop''', a character who misused words in this way in the eighteenth-century [[comedy]] ''The Rivals'' (1775) by Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816). Sheridan's invention of the name ''''Malaprop'''' drew on the French ''mal à propos'', 'not to the purpose'. (See further [[Malapropism]].)

*A '''martinet''' – pronounced with the stress on the final syllable, {{IPA|,mɑː tɪ 'nɛt}} - is a disciplinarian, i.e., a person who demands and enforces strict discipline, especially in a military context. The word comes from Jean '''Martinet''' (died 1672) – pronounced {{IPA|mar ti 'nɛ}}- a lieutenant-colonel and inspector general of the armies of Louis XIV: he devised and established a system for turning raw recruits into a disciplined fighting force. (In contemporary French one of the meanings of ''martinet'' is ‘cat-o’-nine-tails’ (i.e., a whip made of rope, with nine knots, used in times past to flog prisoners); but the French word ''martinet'' may also mean ''either'' ‘swift’ (i.e., a species of fast-flying bird with long slender wings) ''or'' ‘tilt hammer'.)

*'''Masochism''', in everyday speech, is the tendency to derive pleasure from the infliction of pain or suffering on oneself – though it is not defined in precisely this way by psychiatrists and psychoanalysts. The word – or rather its German equivalent ''Masochismus'' – was first used in 1886 by the Austrian psychiatrist Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902), who coined it on the basis of the many descriptions of '''masochism''' in the novels and short stories of the Austrian aristocrat Leopold von Sacher '''Masoch''' (1836-1895).

*A '''mausoleum''' is a large, impressive building which houses a tomb or a number of tombs. The word comes, through Greek and Latin, from '''Mausolus''', who ruled Caria (in southwest Turkey) from 377-353 BCE and planned a stately tomb for himself in his capital city, Halicarnassus (the site of the modern city of Bodrum). The tomb, which was made of white marble and was in fact built by '''Mausolus'''’ widow, Artemisia, became one of the wonders of the ancient world.

*A '''maverick''' is an independent-minded person, especially one with unorthodox or unconventional views. The word was originally used - and still is - in the cattle-ranching regions of the United States and Canada to refer to an unbranded animal, especially a stray calf – a use of the word which derives from the name of a Texas lawyer, land-owner, and rancher, Samuel Augustus '''Maverick''' (1803-1870), who did not have his cattle branded: when one of his animals strayed onto the land of another rancher (who would immediately have it branded as one of his own) it was referred to as a '''maverick'''.

*'''McCarthyism''' is the practice of making baseless and/or false allegations against a person, especially allegations in a political context to the effect that he or she has extreme or otherwise unacceptable beliefs. The [[noun]] '''McCarthyism''' is formed from the surname of Joseph Raymond '''McCarthy''' (1908-1957), a [[Republican]] member of the US [[Senate]], who from 1950 to 1954 led seriously flawed investigations into alleged communist infiltration of the US government.

*The [[verb]] 'to '''mesmerize''' or '''mesmerise'''', meaning 'to hypnotize, fascinate, or hold as if spellbound', comes from Franz Anton '''Mesmer''' (1734-1815), a German doctor who practised in Vienna and studied [[animal magnetism]]. See further [[Memorize - mesmerize]].

See also [[Bobby]], [[Bourbon]], [[Churchill]]ian, [[Cyrillic alphabet]], [[Dunce]], [[Fuchsia]], and [[Gradgrind]].

This list continues at [[Eponyms N-Z]].

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Cochrane (pronunciation)

2023-07-28T14:53:05Z

PeterWilson:

The [[surname]] '''Cochrane''' (originally Scots, and derived from a Scottish place-name) is pronounced with the stress on the first syllable, reducing the vowel in the second syllable to a [[Schwa]]: 'COCK-r'n', {{IPA|ˈkɒ k rən}}. Scots, and anyone else who can, may prefer to use the characteristically Scots consonant 'ch' as in 'och' and 'loch': 'COCH-r'n', {{IPA|ˈkɒχ rən}}.

::Admiral Thomas Cochrane (1775–1860) was a distinguished fighting sailor in the age of Nelson, and a radical politician. He helped to liberate Chile, Peru and Brazil from Spain and Portugal. He bore the hereditary title of Earl of Dundonald (the tenth), and became a highly successful naval warrior, laden with honours.

The name is sometimes concfused with [[Cockburn]]. Don't mix them up!

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[[Category:military]]

Dundonald

2023-07-28T14:50:15Z

PeterWilson: Redirected page to Cochrane (pronunciation)

#redirect [[Cochrane (pronunciation)]]

Hornsea - Hornsey

2023-06-01T18:46:59Z

PeterWilson: --

Two English place-names can be - and have been - confused. Their pronunciations are differrent only in the mouths of careful speakers.

'''Hornsea''' (pronounced HORN-sea {{IPA| hɔː[rn siː}}) is a coastal town in the East [[Riding]] of Yorkshire. It is about 15 miles east of Hull, and lies between [[Bridlington]] (to the north) and [[Withernsea]] (south) on the North Sea coast. It is well-known for '''Hornsea Mere'', the largest freshwater lake in \|Yorkshire, a centre for water saporte, particularly sailing.
::The origin of the name contains [[otiose]] elements: the [[Old Scandinavian]] ''horn'' ('horn') ''nes'' ('ness', 'promontory') ''sae'' 'Lake': 'Lake with a horn-shaped peninsula'. 'Hornsea Mere' is even more otiose, ('the Lake Lake'),

'''Hornsey''' (pronounced HORN-zy {{IPA| hɔː[ˈrn zɪ}}; the [[sibillant is rather more [[Voice (phonetic)|voiced]] than that of Hornsea, and the final vowel, is shorter) is a district of London, in the
London Borough of Haringey.

{{wip}}

[[Category:names]]
[[Category:etymology]]
[[Category:Hull local knowledge‏‎]]
[[Category:pronunciation]]

Wyke

2023-05-31T15:04:37Z

PeterWilson:

'''Wyke''', a not uncommon place-name, in East Yorkshire dates back to the original name of the port that became '''Kingston upon Hull''' in 1299 (see [[Meaux]] for more information about the early place). Places called Wyke exist also in Bradford, Guildford, Dorset, Somerset and Shropshire - at least. As in Hull, many of these places have businesses and institutions using the name 'Wyke': florists, barbers, printers, sports clubs and schools. '''Wyke''', with many variant spellings such as '''Wykes''', '''Week[e]s''', '''Whicks''', '''Whikes''', '''Whykes''', '''Wick[s]''', '''Wick[e]s''', and '''Wix''', is also used as a [[surname]].
*There is disagreement about the origin of the name, and [[place-name]]s in different parts of England may have different sources. Two [[Germanic]] traditions govern this.
**In [[West Germanic]], rhe [[Old English]] ''wīc'' meant 'the dwelling, the specialized farm or trading settlement', ([[Mills, 1991]]). There was also ''wíc'' 'camp': ''[[OED]]'' (2020) notes that "the formation of temporary encampments being a prominent feature of viking raids"; this may be the [[etymological root|root]] of '''[[Viking]]'''.
**In [[North Germanic]], an [[Old Norse]] ''vík'', 'creek', 'inlet', 'bay' be a more probable origin in an area, like Hull, that became part of the Danelaw, and certainly traded across the North Sea.
::::One institution in Hull that may be of interest to some users of AWE is '''Wyke Sixth Form College'''. '''Wyke''' is also the name of one of the electoral wards of the city.

[[Old Norse]] ''vík'', 'creek', 'inlet', 'bay' is often taken as the [[etymological root|root]] of '''Viking''', but ''[[OED]]'' (2020) says that 'Viking' existed in Anglo-Frisian a couple of centuries before it is recorded in [[North Germanic]]. "it was probably formed [from] [[Old English]] ''wíc'' 'camp', "the formation of temporary encampments being a prominent feature of viking raids."

[[Category:names]]
[[Category:place-names]]
[[Category:UK history]]
[[Category:etymology]]
[[Category:Hull local knowledge]]

Hornsea - Hornsey

2023-05-30T17:56:16Z

PeterWilson:

Hornsea - Hornsey

2023-05-30T17:54:45Z

PeterWilson:

Cochrane (pronunciation)

2023-05-28T17:58:47Z

PeterWilson: Created page with "The surname '''Cochrane''' (originally Scots, and derived from a Scottish place-name) is pronounced with the stress on the first syllable, reducing the vowel in the second..."

The [[surname]] '''Cochrane''' (originally Scots, and derived from a Scottish place-name) is pronounced with the stress on the first syllable, reducing the vowel in the second syllable to a [[Schwa]]: 'COCK-r'n', {{IPA|ˈkɒ k rən}}. Scots, and anyone else who can, may prefer to use the characteristically Scpts consonant 'ch' as in 'och' and 'loch': 'COCH-r'n', {{IPA|ˈkɒχ rən}}.

::Admiral Thomas Cochrane (1775–1860) was a distinguished fighting sailor in the age of Nelson, and a radical politician. He helped to liberate Chile, Peru and Brazil from Spain and Portugal. He bore the hereditary title of Earl of Dundonald (the tenth), and became a highly successful naval warrior, laden with honours.

[[Category:nautical]]
[[Category:names]]
[[Category:pronunciation]]
[[Category:history]]
[[Category:military]]

Withernsea

2023-05-21T14:50:51Z

PeterWilson: Created page with " {{wip}} Category:names Category:etymology Category:Hull local knowledge‏‎"

{{wip}}

[[Category:names]]
[[Category:etymology]]
[[Category:Hull local knowledge‏‎]]

Hornsea - Hornsey

2023-05-21T14:47:34Z

PeterWilson:

Hornsea - Hornsey

2023-05-19T19:49:20Z

PeterWilson:

Hornsea - Hornsey

2023-05-12T17:37:54Z

PeterWilson: Created page with "Two English place-names can be - and have been - confused. '''Hornsea''' is a coastal town in the East Riding of Yorkshire. It is about 15 miles east of Hull, and lies be..."

Two English place-names can be - and have been - confused.

'''Hornsea''' is a coastal town in the East [[Riding]] of Yorkshire. It is about 15 miles east of Hull, and lies between Bridlington (to the north) and Withernsea (south) on the North Sea coast.

{{wip}}

[[Category:names]]
[[Category:etymology]]
[[Category:Hull local knowledge‏‎]]
-

Feu - few - phew

2023-05-11T10:28:30Z

PeterWilson:

The [[homophone]]s '''few''' and '''phew''' are not likely to be confused. They are pronounced the same way: {{IPA|fju}}.
*'''Few''' is an [[adjective]] or [[preposition]] meaning 'not many'. (For more detail, see [[A few - few]]).
*'''Phew'''! is an [[interjection]] expressing relief, or, in older times, weariness, disgust or impatience, etc.
::'''''[[etymology|Etymological]] note''''': ''[[OED]]'' (2005) says "Imitative, representing the action of puffing or blowing away with the lips."
*There is also a third [[homophone]], a legal term, more used in Scots than English law, but also by historians of all western European countries: '''feu'''. This is a form of, and [[cognate]] with, '''fee'''. It is a form of land-holding which gives rise to the word '''feudal'''. The feudal system was based on the obligations a tenant owed to the lord from whom he held the land '''in fee'''. Nowadays, '''feu duty''' is usually paid in money.
[[Category:homophones]]
[[Category:disambig]]
[[Category:etymology]]

Miltonian

2023-05-08T17:59:40Z

PeterWilson: Redirected page to Milton

#redirect [[Milton]]

Miltonic

2023-05-08T17:59:01Z

PeterWilson: Redirected page to Milton

#redirect [[Milton]]

Wyke

2023-05-03T15:11:37Z

PeterWilson:

'''Wyke''', a not uncommon place-name, in East Yorkshire dates back to the original name of the port that became '''Kingston upon Hull''' in 1299 (see [[Meaux]] for more information about the early place). Places called Wyke exist also in Bradford, Guildford, Dorset, Somerset and Shropshire - at least. As in Hull, many of these places have businesses and institutions using the name 'Wyke': florists, barbers, printers, sports clubs and schools. '''Wyke''', with many variant spellings such as '''Wykes''', '''Week[e]s''', '''Whicks''', '''Whikes''', '''Whykes''', '''Wick[s]''', '''Wick[e]s''', and '''Wix''', is also used as a [[surname]].
*There is disagreement about the origin of the name, and [[place-name]]s in different parts of England may have different sources. Two [[Germanic]] traditions govern this.
**In [[West Germanic]], rhe [[Old English]] ''wīc'' meant 'the dwelling, the specialized farm or trading settlement', ([[Mills, 1991]]. There was also ''wíc'' 'camp': ''[[OED]]'' (2020) notes that "the formation of temporary encampments being a prominent feature of viking raids", this may be the [[etymological root|root]] of '''[[Viking]]'''.
**In [[North Germanic]], an [[Old Norse]] ''vík'', 'creek', 'inlet', 'bay' be a more probable origin in an area, like Hull, that became part of the Danelaw, and certainly traded across the North Sea.
::::One institution in Hull that may be of interest to some users of AWE is '''Wyke Sixth Form College'''

[[Old Norse]] ''vík'', 'creek', 'inlet', 'bay' is often taken as the [[etymological root|root]] of '''Viking''', but ''[[OED]]'' (2020) says that 'Viking' existed in Anglo-Frisian a couple of centuries before it is recorded in [[North Germanic]]. "it was probably formed [from] [[Old English]] ''wíc'' 'camp', "the formation of temporary encampments being a prominent feature of viking raids."

[[Category:names]]
[[Category:place-names]]
[[Category:UK history]]
[[Category:etymology]]
[[Category:Hull local knowledge]]

College (clarification of meanings)

2023-04-19T14:37:33Z

PeterWilson:

The word '''college''' is used in many different senses. Most involve the central idea of 'an educational institution'; but within that general idea, the word is applied to different types of institution. Some are residential and others are not.

*In [[Higher Education]] in the [[UK]], a '''College''' is usually residential. It is sometimes
**an institute of Higher Education, sometimes equivalent to a university and sometimes of a more limited scope.
**A unit in a larger institution - a 'collegiate university', for example, such as Oxford and Cambridge Universities.
**A free-standing University, formerly a member of a collegiate university, such as King's College and University College, London.
**In America, a College may be the unit responsible for teaching first degrees within, or attached to, a University that awards post-graduate degrees.
***In America and other English-speaking countries, and in British circles where Higher Education is a new departure in a family, the phrase "going away to College" is sometimes used for 'taking up a residential place for a course in Higher Education'. In families more familiar with Higher Education, this is called 'going to University' (or, in the case of [[Oxford and Cambridge]], 'going up').
*In [[Further Education]] in the [[UK]], a '''College''' is usually non-residential. It is a locally-based institution focussed on vocational education and preparation for the workplace. Colleges of this sort may be further labelled, as '''Technical Colleges''', '''secretarial colleges''', '''business colleges''' and so on.
**Crossing the boundary between FE colleges and secondary schools are '''[[Sixth Form]] Colleges'''. These are designed mostly for academic post-compulsory schooling, and prepare candidates for University application, and for skilled work. They are non-residential.
*In secondary education in the [[UK]], '''College''' is a title borne proudly by schools with claims to academic success.
**Some are [[public school]]s, founded like the [[Oxbridge]] colleges by royal, noble and ecclesiastical patrons.
**Boys at such colleges may be known as '''Collegers'''; specifically, King's Scholars (70 in number), who board in a House called College at [[Eton]] are known as '''Collegers'''. Their equivalents at Winchester College are known as '''Collegemen'''. A better general word for 'those who attend college' is [[Collegial - collegian - collegiate|collegian]].
**Some are state or private schools, often selecting their intake by academic ability. The name may be chosen for reasons of perceived prestige.
**Some [[Roman Catholic]] religious orders for teaching chose '''College''' as a title when they were first allowed to offer secondary education in the UK.

Colleges outside the world of education include:
*certain highly respected professional bodies, especially in health professions;
*residences for members of celibate religious orders, usually [[Roman Catholic]], and with strong implications of training for the priesthood.
**Some institutions formerly of this type, but adapted to different functions since the [[Reformation]].
*Groups of senior voters elected by the franchised to make choices, nominally on their behalf, between candidates for high office are known as '''electoral colleges'''.
*One of the highest (legal) courts in Scotland is known as the '''College of Justice'''.
**In nineteenth century criminal slang, a sentence of imprisonment was sometimes called 'going to college', and 'graduates' of such schemes were known as '''collegians'''.
For some explanation, or hint of an explanation, of how these different meanings came to be used, you may like to see AWE's pages on [[College - background (non-educational meanings)|the background of the non-educational meanings of the word '''College''']] and [[College - background (educational meanings)|the background of the educational meanings of the word '''College''']].

[[category:academic culture]]
[[category:UK culture]]
[[category:clarification of meanings]]
[[category:UK education system]]
[[category:snobberies]]

Calque

2023-03-22T15:53:15Z

PeterWilson:

A '''calque''' - pronounced to rhyme with 'talc', as un 'talcum powder', {IPA|kælk}} - is a word or phrase which translates a word or phrase in another language and has constituent parts which translate the corresponding parts of the word or phrase in the first language - for example, the English word 'superman' is a '''calque''' of the German ''Übermensch'', which it translates: 'super' translating ''Über'', and 'man' translating ''mensch''; the Italian word ''grattacielo'' is a '''calque''' of the English 'skyscraper', ''grattacielo'' meaning 'skyscraper', and its component parts – ''gratta'' and ''cielo'' - meaning, respectively, 'scrape{s{' and 'sky'; and the English sentence 'That goes without saying' is a '''calque''' of the French ''Cela va sans dire''.

Note that one word's being a '''calque''' of another is not a reciprocal relationship: a word is a '''calque''' of the word it copies, but the converse is not true: the copied word is not a '''calque''' of the word which copies it. The '''calque''' is the copy. (The French word ''calque'', of which the English word ''''calque'''' is a [[transliteration]], means 'tracing' or 'close copying', and the related verb, ''calquer'', means 'to trace' or 'to copy'.) Clearly, to establish that one word (A) is a '''calque''' of another (B) in another language is not always a straightforward matter: identity of meaning between the two words and between their constituent parts is necessary but not sufficient for A's being a '''calque''' of B: it is also necessary to establish that A was coined on the model of B, i.e., to exclude the possibility that B was coined on the model of A , or that the two words were coined independently of one another - causal claims which it may often be difficult to prove.

The expression ''''loan translation'''' is sometimes used as an alternative to '''calque'''.

[[Category:Language]][[Category:Translation]][[Category:Linguistic terms]]

Grisly - grizzly

2023-03-10T18:26:12Z

PeterWilson:

'''Grisly''' and '''grizzly''' sound exactly the same. Do not confuse them: they have different meanings. (They are commonly confused in newspapers.)

* '''Grizzly''' is perhaps the commoner these days. It is the name of a North American bear, of great ferocity. The '''grizzly''', more formally the '''grizzly bear''' (most formally ''Ursus horribilis''), is an animal to be respected and treated with caution. It eats many things, and is often to be seen in wildlife programmes catching salmon. It is big enough to kill full-grown moose - and men. (Originally - before the North American bear was known - the word was another form of '''grizzled''' ~ 'grey', usually 'grey-haired'.)
* '''Grisly''' on the other hand means 'in some way repulsive': 'causing horror or fear'; 'ugly'; or 'full of fear'. According to ''[[OED]]'', it is now ''archaic ''or ''literary'' - and therefore should be avoided in [[academic English]].

There is also a word '''gristly''', which means 'full of '''gristle''''. '''Gristle''' is the substance found in badly prepared meat which is softer than bone - but very hard to chew.

::::In the last century - and before - it was distressingly common in institutional catering. Indeed, at my school in the 1950s, it was said that we got more '''gristle''' than meat in our stew. AND IT WAS TRUE! Schoolchildren these days don't know they're born... grumble, grumble... etc, etc.

[[Category:Homophones]]
[[Category:Disambig]]
[[Category:spelling]]

Eikon Basilike

2023-03-05T17:23:09Z

PeterWilson: Created page with "{{wip}}"

Herrin 2007

2023-03-05T16:46:59Z

PeterWilson: Redirected page to Herrin, 2007

#redirect [[Herrin, 2007]]|

Herrin (2007)

2023-03-05T16:45:33Z

PeterWilson: Redirected page to Herrin, 2007

#redirect [[Herrin, 2007]]|

Herrin, 2007

2023-03-05T16:40:21Z

PeterWilson: PeterWilson moved page Judith Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire (Allen Lane, 2007) to Herrin, 2007

{{biblio}}

Judith Herrin, (2007) ''Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire'' (Allen Lane)

Judith Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire (Allen Lane, 2007)

2023-03-05T16:40:21Z

PeterWilson: PeterWilson moved page Judith Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire (Allen Lane, 2007) to Herrin, 2007

#REDIRECT [[Herrin, 2007]]

Herrin, 2007

2023-03-05T16:39:13Z

PeterWilson: Created page with "{{biblio}} Judith Herrin, (2007) ''Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire'' (Allen Lane)"

{{biblio}}

Judith Herrin, (2007) ''Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire'' (Allen Lane)

Understand (irregular verb)

2023-02-16T20:16:26Z

PeterWilson:

{{irreg vbs|understand|understood|understood|''from'' [[''from'' [['to '''stand''''||Stand (irregular verb)]]|6|H}}

Empiricist

2023-02-16T19:52:16Z

PeterWilson: Redirected page to Empirical

#REDIRECT[[Empirical]]

Tabula rasa

2023-02-16T19:50:49Z

PeterWilson:

A '''''tabula rasa''''' – the [[Latin]] phrase is pronounced with the stress on the first [[syllable]] of each word ({{IPA|'tæbjə lə 'rɑːsə}}) - is a writing tablet on which the wax has been scraped smooth, i.e., a tablet from which all the writing has been removed. More loosely, but in more idiomatic English, '''''tabula rasa''''' may be translated as 'a clean slate.'

The phrase '''''tabula rasa''''' is used in two different contexts. In everyday life two individuals with a history of mutual antagonism may agree to put aside their past disagreements and start afresh with a '''''tabula rasa''''' or 'clean slate'. (The image underlying this use of '''''tabula rasa''''' is that of a tablet or slate on which what has been written is wiped away.) In philosophy, however, '''''tabula rasa''''' has a quite different use. [[Empiricist]] philosophers, i.e., philosophers who claim that all human knowledge is acquired through or based on experience and that no knowledge is innate – among them, most famously, John Locke (1632-1704) – sometimes speak of the human mind as being at birth a '''''tabula rasa''''', a clean slate, like 'white paper, void of all characters' (Locke, ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', Bk II). (The image underlying this use of '''''tabula rasa''''' is that of a clean tablet or slate, which is subsequently 'written on' by experience.)

[[Category:Latin]][[Category:Latin words and phrases]]

Monarchs of the United Kingdom

2023-02-14T18:46:26Z

PeterWilson:

This article is a simple list of the regnal dates (the dates that they actually reigned) of the kings and queens of Britain since the [[Union of the Crowns]] in 1603. The kingdoms were not fully united until the [[Act of Union 1707]], but the first King in the list that follows ([[James VI and I]]) issued a "Proclamation concerning the Kings Majesties Stile" on 20 Oct 1604. It reads, in the original spelling, "Wee have thought good to discontinue the divided names of England and Scotland out of our Regall Stile, and doe intend and resolve to take and assume unto Us in maner and forme hereafter expressed, The Name and Stile of KING OF GREAT BRITTAINE, including therein according to the trueth, the whole Island."

Several monarchs in the list have links to articles on their names. AWE is not a historical website: these will be of no use to those writing history essays. They are intended to give a description of each monarch in one or two sentences, for the convenience of those (mostly non-historians) who come across a date or other reference and wish to find an answer to "Who's ''this''?" quickly. For this reason, the articles on names used by more than one monarch, such as '''George''' I and '''George''' VI etc, contain enough material to distinguish between the different holders. There are also articles that group the members of the various dynasties, or royal families, that have ruled in the British Isles.

::::There is a flippant [[mnemonic]] rhyme to help schoolchildren remember the list of monarchs in order at [[Willy Willy Harry Stee]]. Only the second half applies to Monarchs of the United Kingdom; the first half only applies to [[English monarchs]].

For monarchs of the two countries before the Union of the Crowns, see [[English monarchs]] and [[Scottish monarchs]].

{| border="1" cellpadding="2"

! Name (and number) of monarch !! year of accession !! year of death or deposition !! Name of dynasty !! Notes
|-
| [[James VI and I]] || 1567 (James VI of Scotland) 1603 (James I of England) || 1625 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || First king of Great Britain. Became King of Scotland in 1567.
|-
| [[King Charles#Charles I|Charles I]] || 1625 || executed 1649 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || His death ended the first phase of the [[Civil War]].
His supporters call him 'Charles King and Martyr'.
|-
| (Interregnum) Protectorate (Oliver [[Cromwell]]) || 1649 || 1658 || || Not an hereditary monarch
|-
| (Richard Cromwell) || 1658 || 1659 || || Not an hereditary monarch - though the son of Oliver
|-
| (The [[Commonwealth]]) || 1659 || 1660 || || Not an hereditary monarch
|-
| [[King Charles#Charles II|Charles II]] || 1660 || 1685 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || The '[[Restoration]]' is the year of his accession.
|-
| [[King James#James VII and II|James [VII and] II]] || 1685 ||1688 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || Ousted in 1688 by 'The [[Glorious Revolution]]'
|-
| [[King William#William III|William III [and II<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] || 1688 || 1702 || 'of Orange'; mother a [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || Ruled jointly with his wife. Commonly '''William and Mary'''.
|-
| [[Mary]] II || 1688 || 1694 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || daughter of James II; cousin & wife of William III
|-
| Anne || 1702 || 1714 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || daughter of James II. From 1702, Queen of England and of Scotland;
from [[Act of Union, 1707|1707]], Queen of the UK
|-
| [[King George#George I|George I]] || 1714 || 1727 || [[Hanover]] || Anne's closest [[Protestant]] relative.
|-
| [[King George#George II|George II]] || 1727 || 1760 || [[Hanover]] ||
|-
| [[King George#George III|George III]] || 1760 || 1820 || [[Hanover]] || Lost the American colonies; reigned during the [[Napoleonic wars]]
Famously mad. From 1810, under [[Regency]] of his son.
|-
| [[King George#George IV|George IV]] || 1820 || 1830 || [[Hanover]] || A famous [[Prince of Wales]], The '''Prince [[Regent]]'''
|-
| [[King William#William IV|William IV]] || 1830 || 1837 || [[Hanover]] || 'The sailor King'
|-
| [[Victoria]] || 1837 || 1901 || [[Hanover]] || Married [[Prince Albert]] of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 1840
Additional title of Empress of India proclaimed 1877.
|-
| [[King Edward#Edward VII|Edward VII]] || 1901 || 1910 || [[Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]] || Another famous [[Prince of Wales]]
during his long wait for the throne
|-
| [[King George#George V|George V]] || 1910 || 1936 || [[Windsor]] || Name of dynasty was changed during [[First World War|WWI]]
|-
| [[King Edward#Edward VIII|Edward VIII]] || 1936 || [[abdicate]]d 1936 || [[Windsor]] || Never crowned; 'abdication crisis' 1936.
Thereafter Duke of Windsor. (Earlier, famous as [[Prince of Wales]]).
|-
| [[King George#George VI|George VI]] || 1936 || 1952 || [[Windsor]] || First to be titled 'Head of the [[Commonwealth]]
|-
| [[Elizabeth]] II [and I] || 1952 || 2022 || [[Windsor]] || Scotland has not previously had a reigning 'Queen Elizabeth'
|-
| [[Charles]] III || 2022 || ? || [[Windsor]] || Acceded to the throne on the death of his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, on 8th September 2022
|-
|}

::''The current [2023] [[Prince of Wales]] and Heir Apparent is '''Prince William''', born in 1982. There is no assurance that he will choose to reign as ''William V''; his great-grandfather, who was [[christen]]ed Albert Frederick Arthur George, and known as 'Bertie' within the family, deliberately choosing the title ''''''[[George]] VI''''' under which to reign. [[Edward]] VII, also known as 'Bertie' within the family (christened 'Albert Edward') "announced that he would reign as '''''Edward VII''''', explaining in an elegant impromptu speech to the privy council that the name Albert could be associated with no one but his father" (''[[ODNB]]'').

[[category:UK culture]]
[[category:UK history]]
[[category:British monarchs]]
[[Category:monarchs]]

WAN

2023-02-14T15:59:16Z

PeterWilson:

In information technology jargon '''WAN''' (upper case) is an [[acronym]] for '''W'''ide '''A'''rea '''N'''etwork. It rhymes with 'can'. Such a '''WAN''' obviously has more reach than a '''LAN''', or '''L'''ocal '''A'''rea '''N'''etwork.

The computer term should not be confused with the [[adjective]] '''wan''' (lower case). This word is traditionally pronounced in [[RP]] to rhyme with 'gone'. In some [[dialect]]s, including much of the North of England, it rhymes with 'can'. Its principal meaning nowadays is "pallid, faded, sickly; unusually or unhealthily pale." (''[[OED]]''). It is also applied to light, when it means "pale or weak" (moonlight is often said to be '''wan'''), and to a smile, when it means "weak or strained".

:The [[adjective]] '''wan''' is a word with an interesting history. It originally meant "lacking light", and so "dark-hued, dusky, gloomy, dark". Now it means "light-hued". The change has been through the ideas of wounding (bruises); "sad, dismal; also awful, fearful, deadly, cruel, wicked, etc."; livid, or the colour of the metal lead; and unhealthy, therefore "pallid, faded, sickly; unusually or unhealthily pale".

[[category:pronunciation]]
[[category:Etymology]]
[[category:abbreviations]]
[[category:ICT advice]]
[[category:disambig]]
[[Category:etymological curiosities]]

Teseida

2023-02-14T15:54:10Z

PeterWilson: Redirected page to Boccaccio

#redirect [[Boccaccio]]

Filostrato

2023-02-14T15:53:50Z

PeterWilson: Redirected page to Boccaccio

#redirect [[Boccaccio]]

Monarchs of the United Kingdom

2023-02-13T12:53:29Z

PeterWilson:

This article is a simple list of the regnal dates (the dates that they actually reigned) of the kings and queens of Britain since the [[Union of the Crowns]] in 1603. The kingdoms were not fully united until the [[Act of Union 1707]], but the first King in the list that follows ([[James VI and I]]) issued a "Proclamation concerning the Kings Majesties Stile" on 20 Oct 1604. It reads, in the original spelling, "Wee have thought good to discontinue the divided names of England and Scotland out of our Regall Stile, and doe intend and resolve to take and assume unto Us in maner and forme hereafter expressed, The Name and Stile of KING OF GREAT BRITTAINE, including therein according to the trueth, the whole Island."

Several monarchs in the list have links to articles on their names. AWE is not a historical website: these will be of no use to those writing history essays. They are intended to give a description of each monarch in one or two sentences, for the convenience of those (mostly non-historians) who come across a date or other reference and wish to find an answer to "Who's ''this''?" quickly. For this reason, the articles on names used by more than one monarch, such as '''George''' I and '''George''' VI etc, contain enough material to distinguish between the different holders. There are also articles that group the members of the various dynasties, or royal families, that have ruled in the British Isles.

::::There is a flippant [[mnemonic]] rhyme to help schoolchildren remember the list of monarchs in order at [[Willy Willy Harry Stee]]. Only the second half applies to Monarchs of the United Kingdom; the first half only applies to [[English monarchs]].

For monarchs of the two countries before the Union of the Crowns, see [[English monarchs]] and [[Scottish monarchs]].

{| border="1" cellpadding="2"

! Name (and number) of monarch !! year of accession !! year of death or deposition !! Name of dynasty !! Notes
|-
| [[James VI and I]] || 1567 (James VI of Scotland) 1603 (James I of England) || 1625 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || First king of Great Britain. Became King of Scotland in 1567.
|-
| [[King Charles#Charles I|Charles I]] || 1625 || executed 1649 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || His death ended the first phase of the [[Civil War]].
His supporters call him 'Charles King and Martyr'.
|-
| (Interregnum) Protectorate (Oliver [[Cromwell]]) || 1649 || 1658 || || Not an hereditary monarch
|-
| (Richard Cromwell) || 1658 || 1659 || || Not an hereditary monarch - though the son of Oliver
|-
| (The [[Commonwealth]]) || 1659 || 1660 || || Not an hereditary monarch
|-
| [[King Charles#Charles II|Charles II]] || 1660 || 1685 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || The '[[Restoration]]' is the year of his accession.
|-
| [[King James#James VII and II|James [VII and] II]] || 1685 ||1688 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || Ousted in 1688 by 'The [[Glorious Revolution]]'
|-
| [[King William#William III|William III [and II<nowiki>]</nowiki>]] || 1688 || 1702 || 'of Orange'; mother a [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || Ruled jointly with his wife. Commonly '''William and Mary'''.
|-
| [[Mary]] II || 1688 || 1694 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || daughter of James II; cousin & wife of William III
|-
| Anne || 1702 || 1714 || [[Stuart dynasty|Stuart]] || daughter of James II. From 1702, Queen of England and of Scotland;
from [[Act of Union, 1707|1707]], Queen of the UK
|-
| [[King George#George I|George I]] || 1714 || 1727 || [[Hanover]] || Anne's closest [[Protestant]] relative.
|-
| [[King George#George II|George II]] || 1727 || 1760 || [[Hanover]] ||
|-
| [[King George#George III|George III]] || 1760 || 1820 || [[Hanover]] || Lost the American colonies; reigned during the [[Napoleonic wars]]
Famously mad. From 1810, under [[Regency]] of his son.
|-
| [[King George#George IV|George IV]] || 1820 || 1830 || [[Hanover]] || A famous [[Prince of Wales]], The '''Prince [[Regent]]'''
|-
| [[King William#William IV|William IV]] || 1830 || 1837 || [[Hanover]] || 'The sailor King'
|-
| [[Victoria]] || 1837 || 1901 || [[Hanover]] || Married [[Prince Albert]] of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 1840
Additional title of Empress of India proclaimed 1877.
|-
| [[King Edward#Edward VII|Edward VII]] || 1901 || 1910 || [[Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]] || Another famous [[Prince of Wales]]
during his long wait for the throne
|-
| [[King George#George V|George V]] || 1910 || 1936 || [[Windsor]] || Name of dynasty changed during [[First World War|WWI]]
|-
| [[King Edward#Edward VIII|Edward VIII]] || 1936 || [[abdicate]]d 1936 || [[Windsor]] || Never crowned; 'abdication crisis' 1936.
Thereafter Duke of Windsor. (Earlier, famous as [[Prince of Wales]]).
|-
| [[King George#George VI|George VI]] || 1936 || 1952 || [[Windsor]] || First to be titled 'Head of the [[Commonwealth]]
|-
| [[Elizabeth]] II [and I] || 1952 || 2022 || [[Windsor]] || Scotland has not previously had a reigning 'Queen Elizabeth'
|-
| [[Charles]] III || 2022 || ? || [[Windsor]] || Acceded to the throne on the death of his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, on 8th September 2022
|-
|}

::''The current [2023] [[Prince of Wales]] and Heir Apparent is '''Prince William''', born in 1982. There is no assurance that he will choose to reign as ''William V''; his great-grandfather, who was [[christen]]ed Albert Frederick Arthur George, and known as 'Bertie' within the family, deliberately choosing the title ''''''[[George]] VI''''' under which to reign. [[Edward]] VII, also known as 'Bertie' within the family (christened 'Albert Edward') "announced that he would reign as '''''Edward VII''''', explaining in an elegant impromptu speech to the privy council that the name Albert could be associated with no one but his father" (''[[ODNB]]'').

[[category:UK culture]]
[[category:UK history]]
[[category:British monarchs]]
[[Category:monarchs]]

Leeward Islands

2023-02-03T17:33:34Z

PeterWilson:

'''Leeward Islands''' is a confusing term, for several reasons, not least of which is its meaning. Its most common application, by far, is in the West Indies - among the islands of the [[Caribbean]] Sea.
*'[[Leeward]]' means 'downwind', 'in the direction to which the wind is blowing'. There is no dispute about that, nor about the fact that the wind in this case is the dominant Trade Wind in the area. But the early sailors and explorers who were naming (as well as colonizing) the islands in the [[Caribbean]] did not agree on the direction of the Trades. In English usage, the Trades were regarded as coming from the south east, so the '''Leeward Islands''' in the Lesser [[Antilles]] chain were those in the northern stretch, from the Virgin Islands to abour Montserrat. The islands from Guadaloupe south to Trinidad were consequently named the [[Windward Islands]]. The Dutch, French and Spanish regarded the Trades as being north-easterlies, so in their languages the terms 'Leeward' and'Windward' Islands would have been reversed, had they not viewed the Caribbean Islands differently.
**In Dutch, French and Spanish, the Caribbean islands of greater consequence were those on the southern edge of the Sea, bordering the Venezuelan coast. These are known as the '''[[Leeward Antilles]]''', as opposed to all the islands in the eastern range of the Antilles, from the Virgin Islands to Trinidad, which in those languages are the equivalent of 'the '''Windward Islands''''<nowiki></nowiki>.
**As the terms 'Leeward' and 'Windward' Islands are not reflections of political or physical realities, they have no formal recognition. Therefore different users of the terms include different listings of islands within them, and especially exactly where the line should be drawn between the Leeward and the Windward Islands. (in 1940, during the rule of the [[British Empire]], Dominica was originally considered part of the Leeward Islands, but was transferred from the colony of the British Leeward Islands to the colony of the British Windward Islands.) [[Wikipedia]] lists the Leeward Islands as follows:
***the Spanish Virgin Islands (Culebra, Vieques, Puerto Rico); the United States Virgin Islands (Saint Thomas, Saint John, Saint Croix, Water Island; British Virgin Islands (Jost Van Dyke, Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada]]; Anguilla; Saint Martin. or Sint Maarten; Saint-Barthélemy; Saba; Sint Eustatius; Saint Kitts (forming a sovereign state with [[Nevis]]; [[Nevis]]; Barbuda (forming a sovereign state with Antigua; Montserrat; and Guadeloupe (a group containing La Désirade, or La Deseada, Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, ''Îles des Saintes'').
***The [[World Encyclopedia]] says "Leeward includes the US and British Virgin Islands, Guadeloupe, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Montserrat, St Kitts-Nevis, and St Martin".
*There are other groups of islands called '''Leeward Islands''' in other parts of the world, including the Society Islands in French Polynesia; Indonesia; Cape Verde; and Hawaii.

[[Category:clarification of meanings]]
[[Category:nautical]]
[[Category:disambig]]
[[Category:names]]
[[Category:etymological curiosities]]

Scots - Scotch - Scottish

2023-01-31T19:04:28Z

PeterWilson:

These three words share their denotation, or 'dictionary meaning'. They are all forms of the adjective derived from ''''Scotland'''', the name of the most northern of the countries in the United Kingdom. So they all mean 'from, belonging to or to do with '''Scotland''''. Their [[usage]]s and connotations are, however, different, and tactful writers will observe distinctions.
*'''Scottish''' is the most neutral. You will not give offence if you use the word - although you may cause amusement if you use it of whisky. This is the preferred term in writing, except for some set phrases.
*'''Scots''' is closely derived from the form in the language or [[dialect]] of Scotland, ''scottis''. It is the word most often used to describe the language and law of the country - Scots law is different from English law. The language in which Robert Burns wrote is best called, as a single word, '''[[Scots |Scots (language)]]''', or, as a phrase, 'the '''Scottish''' dialect' - the phrase he used on the title page of thefirst editions of his ''Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect''. In historical times, before the Union of the Kingdoms of Scotland and England, measurements and currency were different, and it was usual then to refer to 'two [[pound]] '''Scots'''' ([[ post nominalin that order of words) or 'a '''Scots''' mile', etc. If you are writing History now, stick to this usage in describing the units of the past.
*'''Scotch''' was the most usual form from the mid-seventeenth century, both in England and in Scotland. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, it has often been rejected by the people of Scotland, particularly by those with nationalistic instincts, as being a derogatory term used by English people to belittle their northern neighbours. This is despite the fact that the most famous '''Scottish''' poet, Robert Burns (1759-1796), used the word '''Scotch''' quite happily. So did Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), who did so much to spread the idea of Scotland and Scottishness to the rest of the world. You are best advised to avoid the word 'Scotch' in formal writing nowadays, as it may seem prejudicial to some of your readers. The form 'Scottish' is to be preferred. Some things, nevertheless, are usually called Scotch, and it would be funny if they were called anything else: Scotch broth (a kind of soup); Scotch eggs (hard-boiled eggs wrapped in sausage meat); [[Scotch mist]], a drizzle or fine rain; Scotch pancakes, an alternative term for what are morecommonly called 'drop scones'; [[Scotch tape]], a brand of adhesive tape made by 3M; and Scotch whisky (often called just by the adjective used [[substantive]]ly - '''Scotch''').

::There are also several words written ''''scotch'''' of which the [[etymology]] is unclear, but which are unrelated to the meaning above. These fall into two groups:
***The general sense of 'a cut', particularly a straight line scored into something. The [[noun]] is used of the wounds and scars left by a sword, and can still be seen in the name of the children's game '''hopscotch''', where players hop over lines originally cut into turf (now usually chalked on pavement). The [[verb]] means 'to cut', 'make a gash', 'wound'. It is also used to mean 'render something temporarily harmless, without destroying it nor removing its power to harm', but this may be simply a misreading of what was originally printed as ''scorch'd'', in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''Macbeth'', III ii 13: "we have scotch'd the snake, not kill'd it", referring to the murder of Banquo while his son has escaped to remain a threat in the future.
***The general sense of 'to block'. The [[verb]] meant originally, and still in some [[dialect]]s, 'to hesitate', or, of a horse, 'to start, or shy'. Only later did it come to be used for 'to block [a wheel or door, etc] from moving or slipping', 'to place a chock [under a wheel] or wedge [under a door]'. As a [[noun]], '''scotch''' has been largely replaced by '''chock'''.

[[Category:Culture]]
[[Category:UK culture]]
[[Category:Pronunciation]]
[[Category:Usage]]
[[Category:etymology]]
[[Category:etymological curiosities]]

Scots - Scotch - Scottish

2023-01-31T19:00:41Z

PeterWilson:

These three words share their denotation, or 'dictionary meaning'. They are all forms of the adjective derived from ''''Scotland'''', the name of the most northern of the countries in the United Kingdom. So they all mean 'from, belonging to or to do with '''Scotland''''. Their [[usage]]s and connotations are, however, different, and tactful writers will observe distinctions.
*'''Scottish''' is the most neutral. You will not give offence if you use the word - although you may cause amusement if you use it of whisky. This is the preferred term in writing, except for some set phrases.
*'''Scots''' is closely derived from the form in the language or [[dialect]] of Scotland, ''scottis''. It is the word most often used to describe the language and law of the country - Scots law is different from English law. The language in which Robert Burns wrote is best called, as a single word, '''[[Scots |Scots (language)]]''', or, as a phrase, 'the '''Scottish''' dialect' - the phrase he used on the title page of thefirst editions of his ''Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect''. In historical times, before the Union of the Kingdoms of Scotland and England, measurements and currency were different, and it was usual then to refer to 'two [[pound]] '''Scots'''' ([[ post nominalin that order of words) or 'a '''Scots''' mile', etc. If you are writing History now, stick to this usage in describing the units of the past.
*'''Scotch''' was the most usual form from the mid-seventeenth century, both in England and in Scotland. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, it has often been rejected by the people of Scotland, particularly by those with nationalistic instincts, as being a derogatory term used by English people to belittle their northern neighbours. This is despite the fact that the most famous '''Scottish''' poet, Robert Burns (1759-1796), used the word '''Scotch''' quite happily. So did Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), who did so much to spread the idea of Scotland and Scottishness to the rest of the world. You are best advised to avoid the word 'Scotch' in formal writing nowadays, as it may seem prejudicial to some of your readers. The form 'Scottish' is to be preferred. Some things, nevertheless, are usually called Scotch, and it would be funny if they were called anything else: Scotch broth (a kind of soup); Scotch eggs (hard-boiled eggs wrapped in sausage meat); [[Scotch mist]], a drizzle or fine rain; [[Scotch tape]], a brand of adhesive tape made by 3M; and Scotch whisky (often called just by the adjective used [[substantive]]ly - '''Scotch''').

::There are also several words written ''''scotch'''' of which the [[etymology]] is unclear, but which are unrelated to the meaning above. These fall into two groups:
***The general sense of 'a cut', particularly a straight line scored into something. The [[noun]] is used of the wounds and scars left by a sword, and can still be seen in the name of the children's game '''hopscotch''', where players hop over lines originally cut into turf (now usually chalked on pavement). The [[verb]] means 'to cut', 'make a gash', 'wound'. It is also used to mean 'render something temporarily harmless, without destroying it nor removing its power to harm', but this may be simply a misreading of what was originally printed as ''scorch'd'', in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''Macbeth'', III ii 13: "we have scotch'd the snake, not kill'd it", referring to the murder of Banquo while his son has escaped to remain a threat in the future.
***The general sense of 'to block'. The [[verb]] meant originally, and still in some [[dialect]]s, 'to hesitate', or, of a horse, 'to start, or shy'. Only later did it come to be used for 'to block [a wheel or door, etc] from moving or slipping', 'to place a chock [under a wheel] or wedge [under a door]'. As a [[noun]], '''scotch''' has been largely replaced by '''chock'''.

[[Category:Culture]]
[[Category:UK culture]]
[[Category:Pronunciation]]
[[Category:Usage]]
[[Category:etymology]]
[[Category:etymological curiosities]]

Fortes fortuna iuvat

2023-01-31T17:39:42Z

PeterWilson:

The [[Latin]] proverb '''''Fortes''''' (or '''''fortīs''''') '''''fortuna iuvat''''' ('Fortune favours the brave (the bold or the strong)'), was said by Pliny the Younger (61-c113 CE) to have been quoted by his uncle, Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE), when the latter set off on his fatal journey in 79 CE to view the eruption of Vesuvius at close range (see Pliny the Younger, ''Letters'' VI 16). '''''Fortes fortuna iuvat''''' is the motto of The Jutland Dragoon Regiment in the Royal Danish Army.

Several variants of the proverb are found. Among them

'''''Fortes''''' (or '''''fortīs''''') '''''fortuna adiuvat''''' ('Fortune helps the brave'), (Terence (Publius Terentius Afer. c190-c159 BCE), ''Phormio'', 203), the motto of the British naval vessel HMS Brave and of several ships in the US Navy.

'''''Audentes fortuna iuvat''''' ('Fortune favours those who dare'),(Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro, 70-19 BCE), ''Aeneid'', X 284), the motto of the United States ship USS Montpelier, and of the Portuguese Army Commandos.

'''''Virtutis fortuna comes''''' ('Fortune is the companion of valour'), the personal motto of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington (1769-1852), adopted as the motto of several military units in the UK, e.g., 33rd Regiment of Foot (The Duke of Wellington's Regiment, now the third battalion of the Yorkshire Regiment); in New Zealand (9th (Wellington East Coast) Mounted Rifles Regiment); and in the USA (334th Infantry Regiment). '''''Virtutis fortuna comes''''' is also the motto of the English public school, Wellington College, founded by Queen Victoria in 1859 to honour the memory of the Duke of Wellington.

[[Category:Latin]][[Category:Latin words and phrases]]
[[Category:military]]

Thalia

2023-01-15T14:58:36Z

PeterWilson:

'''Thalia''', in her own language of ancient [[Greek]] Θἀλεια (from Greek θἀλλειν, ''thallein'', 'to flourish') is, in Greek mythology, the name of two female beings. The name was traditionally pronounced, in English, 'the (''or'' thay)-LIE-er', {{IPA|θə (''or'' θeɪ) ˈlaɪ ə}}, although more recent speakers in her native Greek, and in most European languages, pronounce it: 'TAH-li-a', /ˈtɑː lɪ ə/. The two are:
*the [[Muse]] of [[comedy]] ('happy drama') and idyllic poetry;
*the third of the [[Three Graces]]

The name '''Thalia''' has occasionally been used as a female [[forename]] in English. It has also been applied in biology to:
*A genus of aquatic herbaceous plants, ''Marantaceæ'', natives of tropical America, sometimes called the prayer-plant family;
*An old synonym of the genus ''Salpa'';
*A genus of coleopterous insects.
In astronomy, Thalia is the name of an asteroid.

Three ships of the [[Royal Navy]] have been called HMS Thalia, one broken up in 1814, one in 1867, and one sold in 1920.

[[Category:mythology]]
[[Category:european culture]]
[[Category:Allusions, references and quotations]]
[[Category:pronunciation]]
[[Category:nautical]]

Met

2023-01-09T19:06:57Z

PeterWilson:

You looked for '''met''' or '''Met'''. AWE has pages on
*'''met''' (with [[lower case]] '''m-''') at [[Meet (irregular verb)]]
*'''Met''' (with [[upper case]] '''M-''') at [[Metropolitan]].
:::'''Met''' (with [[upper case]] '''M-''') can also be a shortening of '''Meteorological''' (~ 'to do with the study of weather'), most often in the construction 'the Met Office' - now adopted as the official title of what used to be called '''the Meteorological Office''', a department run under the government of the [[United Kingdom]] to provide accurate weather forecasts.
**The famous quotation "Ill-'''met''' by moonlight, proud Titania" (spoken by Oberon, the king of the fairies, to his wife in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''Midsummer Might's Dream'' (Act 2, scene 1, line 62) uses the phrase "Ill-'''met'''" to mean '[this is] an unfortunate encounter". It is a pair with the facetious greeting "Hail, fellow, well met" to be heard from [usually male] speakers of a certain age.
***''"Ill-'''met''' by moonlight'' is also the title of a book (1950, by W. Stanley Moss) and subsequent film (1957) about the kidnapping of the German General Heinrich Kreipe from his base in Crete
{{wip}}
[[Category:disambiguation]]

Heard - herd

2022-12-19T16:48:03Z

PeterWilson:

'''H<big>ea</big>rd''' and '''h<big>e</big>rd''' are [[homophone]]s: both are pronounced {{IPA|hɜːrd}}. If a writer chooses the wrong one in any context, a spell-checker will not register it as an error. So writers must be careful to choose the right one.
*'''H<big>ea</big>rd''' is the [[past tense]] and [[-ed participle|participle]] of the irregular [[verb]] '[[hear|to '''hear''']]'.
*A '''herd''' (with no '-a-') means 'a collection of animals'.
**Originally it was used for domestic animals; in contrast with '''flocks''', which in Europe are mostly sheep and goats, '''herds''' were of cattle and other bovines.
***In [[Old English]], and still in Scotland, a '''herd''' is also a farm-worker with responsibility for looking after animals. Nowadays this is almost always compounded with the type of animal: 'cowherds' and 'shepherds' [from 'sheep'] most often. Until after [[Early Modern English]], 'swineherds' and 'goose-herds' were also common, but there is less call for them in current farming.
**From the thirteenth century, when it was applied to deer, '''herd''' has also been used for wild animals in company, such as wildebeest, elephant and giraffe.
**In an extended meaning, it has often been applied to people, such as herds [crowds of commuters.
***In medical and veterinary contexts, the concept of '''herd immunity''' is the idea that that a population (originally a herd of cattle) will be resistant to a particular disease if a sufficient number of members have been infected with, or vaccinated against, a particular disease, gaining individual immunity. This reduces the chances of others being infected. According to [[https://www.jhsph.edu/covid-19/articles/achieving-herd-immunity-with-covid19.html| Johns Hopkins University]], "usually 70% to 90% of a population needs immunity to achieve herd immunity."
***'The herd' is an idiom for the common mentality, or the habits of thinking of a crowd; this [[Figures of speech|figure of speech]] is used in 'herd behaviour', a term used in psychology, marketing and so on to indicate the way that a mass of people will behave in ways that each individual might avoid, on the grounds of its irrationality.
*The [[verb]] 'to '''herd'''<nowiki>'</nowiki> means, in farming, 'to drive a group of animals as one'.
**[[Intransitive]]ly, it means 'to come together in a group with common purpose': "the bystanders '''herded''' together in panic".
**By extension, humans can be herded: school-teachers may '''herd''' their pupils from place to place on an educational visit.

[[Category:homophones]]
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[[Category:changing meanings]]

Used

2022-12-13T16:58:38Z

PeterWilson:

'''Use''' presents some problems, particularly as [[verb]], with [[past forms]] '''used'''.

(*You may want to read more about:
** the difference between the words [[use - usage]]
** the easily made typo [[sued - used]].)
The problems with '''use''', and more particularly the [[past forms]] '''used''', fall into two main (related) groups: pronunciation and spelling.
*Two '''<big>pronunciations</big>''' are involved.
**The normal [[lexical verb]] 'to '''use'''<nowiki>'</nowiki> is pronounced with the [[Voice (phonetic)|voiced]] sibilant '-z-', so that it sounds like 'youze', [[past forms]] 'youzed' ({{IPA|juːz, juːzd}}. The meaning is 'to make use of', 'to utilize', 'to employ'.
**The semi-[[modal verb]] '''used to''', <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[verb]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, which means 'was [formerly] the case [but is no longer so', 'it was [my] habit [but no longer is]' as in "I '''used to be ''' young", "We '''used to''' live abroad" or "I '''used to''' play football every day", is pronounced with the [[Voice (phonetic)|unvoiced]] '-s-', as 'youst' /juːst/. In [[Present-day English]], it is always used, in in the [[past tense]] - although [[Jane Austen]], among other older writers, wrote the [[present tense]] form '''I use to ...''' to mean 'it is my habit to ...', where the pronunciation is with '-z-'. Older [[pedant]]s may feel that it is too [[informal]] for [[academic English]], but it seems acceptable to AWE.
**There is also a formation with past meaning formed with the [[auxiliary verb]] 'to [[do]]': "He '''didn't use''' to be like this". As the past meaning is contained in the [[past tense]] of the auxiliary ('''did''', not 'do'), the form of the [[lexical verb]] used is the [[base form]] '''use''', not the [[past forms|past form]] <s>used</s>.
:::The dismissive colloquial command 'get used to it' means 'you must accept it [because I am not going to change it].'
***The related [[participial adjective]] meaning 'to be accustomed to', 'to have the habit of [a [[noun phrase]]', often a [[verbal noun]]], "He is used to [eating] breakfast at seven", "She was used to better treatment", is also pronounced 'youst'.

*The '''<big>spelling difficulties</big>''' arise from the pronunciation of these two, the semi-[[modal verb]] and the [[participial adjective]] '''used to'''. Since very few people pronounce both [[dental]]s - the [[Voice (phonetic)|voiced]] '-d' and the [[Voice (phonetic)|unvoiced]] 't-' with any separation, the two letters are commonly [[assimilate]]d into one. Hence it is not uncommon to see
**the usual [[past forms]] written as '''<s>use to</s>''' as in "<s>He use to drink like a fish</s>" (sc. 'He use'''d''' to drink like a fish"); and
**the proper way of writing the [[past tense]] '''he didn't use to ...''' developing an extra '-d' to produce the bastard amalgam <s>he didn't used to</s>.

**The [[noun]] '''use''' is always pronounced with the [[Voice (phonetic)|unvoiced]] '-s-' sound: 'youss' /juːs/.
**The [[adjective]] '''used''', often a [[synonym]] for 'second-hand' or 'pre-owned', has the [[Voice (phonetic)|voiced]] '-z-', like the [[lexical verb]] of which it is the [[Participial adjective]].

[[Category:pronunciation]]
[[Category:usage]]
[[Category:spelling]]
[[Category:spelling common errors]]
[[Category:verbs]]
[[Category:archaic English]]
[[Category:typos]]

Teresa - Theresa

2022-12-13T16:45:37Z

PeterWilson:

The two spellings '''Teresa''' and '''Theresa''' are variants of the same female [[forename]]. The preferred [[RP]] pronunciation has the stress on the middle vowel, a [[long '-e-']] as in 'sea' or 'be': 'ter-EASE-ah', {{IPA|tər ˈiːz ə (''or'' a)}}. Sometimes this is realized as 'raise', /tər ˈeɪz ə (''or'' a)/.
Be careful to spell the name of people you are studying or quoting in the way they prefer.
Of the two spellings, '''Teresa''', the Spanish and Italian form, may be more popular among [[Roman Catholic]]s because of that church's veneration pf [[Saint Teresa of Ávila]] (1515-82), but another popular saint used the French form, '''Thérèse''' - [[St. Therese of Lisieux]], (1873-1897). The traditional spelling in English was '''Theresa''', probably influenced by the Austrian spelling of the name of the Austro-Hungarian Empress '''Maria Theresa''' (1717–1780), the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg (although the usual form in German is '''''Maria Theresia'''''. She was a formidable figure in European politics throughout her forty year reign, She was the mother of [[Marie Antoinette]]. The name Maria Theresa has been given to many members of the [[Habsburg]] royal house, and to their multitudinous connections.

*The second female Prime Minister of the UK was Mrs '''Theresa''' May (1956 - present; PM 2016-2019).
::'''''[[etymology|Etymological]] note''''': the origin of '''T[h]eresa''' is obscure. [[Wikipedia]] says "The name may be derived from the Greek verb θερίζω (''therízō''), meaning to harvest", while [[Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges (2006)]] say "The name seems to have been first used in Spain and Portugal, and, according to tradition, was the name of the wife of St Paulinus of Nola, who spent most of his life in Spain; she was said to have originated (and to have derived her name) from the Greek island of Thēra. However, this story is neither factually nor etymologically confirmed."

::::See also [[Saint Theresa]].

[[Category:French words]]
[[Category:names]]
[[Category:pronunciation]]
[[Category:etymology]]

Doris

2022-12-01T18:20:06Z

PeterWilson:

'''Doris''' is a [[proper noun]], with several [[denotation]]s.
*As a [[forename]], it is used for girls - not often nowadays. As its first use in English (the [[Latin]] writer [[Juvenal]] used it as a name for his mistress) is recorded in [[Withycombe]] as being 1819, its fashion has been brief. In early use it was pronounced in a way that reflects a [[Greek]] origin, (Δωρἰς) with a [[long '-o-']]: 'DOH-ris' ({{IPA|ˈdaʊr ɪs}}): now it is always 'DORR-is' (/ˈdɒr ɪs/). Its meaning may be 'a woman of the [[Dorian - Doric|Dorian]] tribe', suggesting a learned origin in classical scholarship, or it may belong to the mythical character.
*'''Doris''' was the name of one of the geographic divisions of Greece in [[classic]]al and pre-classical times. Its precise meaning was largely mythological and ethnic, and varied over time to reflect various shifts of power.
*In Greek mythology, Doris was a minor goddess of the sea, the consort of Nereus and the mother of his daughters, the Nereids or sea-nymphs, who numbered fifty (in some versions, more).
Dorus, in Greek myth, son of Hellen, the eponymous ancestor of the Hellenes (Greeks), himself the son of Deucalion. Hellen became, by the nymph Orses, the father of the mythical ancestors of the three great branches of the Greek race, Aeolus (of the Aeolians), Xuthus (of the Achaeans and Ionians), and Dorus (of the Dorians). "Dōrus" [[Howatson, 2011]] <http://www.oxfordreference.com/search?siteToSearch=oso&q=Dorus&searchBtn=Search&isQuickSearch=true>

*An equivalent masculine [[forename]] is '''Dorian''', apparently invented by [[Oscar Wilde]] in his novel ''The Picture of Dorian Grey'' (1890 in ''Lippincott's Magazine'' and 1891 in book form), the story of an end-of century decadent youth. He is painted on account of his great beauty by Basil Hallward, and sells his soul to allow only the portrait to show traces of his vices and bad behaviour. It grows uglier and uglier, while its subject remains young and handsome. Finally he stabs it, and is discovered aged and corrupt, beside the portrait in its original state.
**'''Dorian''' in other use is the [[adjective]] meaning 'of Doris {''or'' Doria)', one of the divisions (as mentioned above) of ancient Greece. The '''Dorians''' were believed to have invaded the Greek peninsula from the north west. They, along with the Aeolians, Achaeans and Ionians, were one of the four main 'tribes' of classical Greece: the dispute between the Dorians, led by Sparta, and the Ionian (''or'' 'Attic') forces led by Athens known as the [[Peleponnesian War]] was the crucial event by which we may mark the division of the the fifth and the fourth centuries [[BCE]]. States claiming Dorian loyalty included Sparta, Corinth, Tiryns, Macedon, Crete, Asian Greece, Syracuse and many of the Greek colonies in Southern Italy. For more, see [[Dorian - Doric]].

Some specific gifts of the Dorians to culture include:
*The Doric dialect, of the classical Greek language; 'the Doric' wqs a slighting term to describe the [[Scots|Scots (language)]], as inferior to formal English;
*and two areas of the arts
**the Dorian mode, in music;
**the Doric order, in architecture - all three dealt with in rather more detail at [[Dorian - Doric]]

[[category:names]]
[[category:European culture]]
[[category:academic culture]]
[[category:pronunciation]]

Scots - Scotch - Scottish

2022-12-01T18:19:20Z

PeterWilson:

These three words share their denotation, or 'dictionary meaning'. They are all forms of the adjective derived from ''''Scotland'''', the name of the most northern of the countries in the United Kingdom. So they all mean 'from, belonging to or to do with '''Scotland''''. Their [[usage]]s and connotations are, however, different, and tactful writers will observe distinctions.
*'''Scottish''' is the most neutral. You will not give offence if you use the word - although you may cause amusement if you use it of whisky. This is the preferred term in writing, except for some set phrases.
*'''Scots''' is closely derived from the form in the language or [[dialect]] of Scotland, ''scottis''. It is the word most often used to describe the language and law of the country - Scots law is different from English law. The language in which Robert Burns wrote is best called, as a single word, '''[[Scots |Scots (language)]]''', or, as a phrase, 'the '''Scottish''' dialect'. In historical times, before the Union of the Kingdoms of Scotland and England, measurements and currency were different, and it was usual then to refer to 'two [[pound]] '''Scots'''' ([[ post nominalin that order of words) or 'a '''Scots''' mile', etc. If you are writing History now, stick to this usage in describing the units of the past.
*'''Scotch''' was the most usual form from the mid-seventeenth century, both in England and in Scotland. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, it has often been rejected by the people of Scotland, particularly by those with nationalistic instincts, as being a derogatory term used by English people to belittle their northern neighbours. This is despite the fact that the most famous '''Scottish''' poet, Robert Burns (1759-1796), used the word '''Scotch''' quite happily. So did Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), who did so much to spread the idea of Scotland and Scottishness to the rest of the world. You are best advised to avoid the word 'Scotch' in formal writing nowadays, as it may seem prejudicial to some of your readers. The form 'Scottish' is to be preferred. Some things, nevertheless, are usually called Scotch, and it would be funny if they were called anything else: Scotch broth (a kind of soup); Scotch eggs (hard-boiled eggs wrapped in sausage meat); [[Scotch mist]], a drizzle or fine rain; [[Scotch tape]], a brand of adhesive tape made by 3M; and Scotch whisky (often called just by the adjective used [[substantive]]ly - '''Scotch''').

::There are also several words written ''''scotch'''' of which the [[etymology]] is unclear, but which are unrelated to the meaning above. These fall into two groups:
***The general sense of 'a cut', particularly a straight line scored into something. The [[noun]] is used of the wounds and scars left by a sword, and can still be seen in the name of the children's game '''hopscotch''', where players hop over lines originally cut into turf (now usually chalked on pavement). The [[verb]] means 'to cut', 'make a gash', 'wound'. It is also used to mean 'render something temporarily harmless, without destroying it nor removing its power to harm', but this may be simply a misreading of what was originally printed as ''scorch'd'', in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''Macbeth'', III ii 13: "we have scotch'd the snake, not kill'd it", referring to the murder of Banquo while his son has escaped to remain a threat in the future.
***The general sense of 'to block'. The [[verb]] meant originally, and still in some [[dialect]]s, 'to hesitate', or, of a horse, 'to start, or shy'. Only later did it come to be used for 'to block [a wheel or door, etc] from moving or slipping', 'to place a chock [under a wheel] or wedge [under a door]'. As a [[noun]], '''scotch''' has been largely replaced by '''chock'''.

[[Category:Culture]]
[[Category:UK culture]]
[[Category:Pronunciation]]
[[Category:Usage]]
[[Category:etymology]]
[[Category:etymological curiosities]]

Doris

2022-12-01T17:53:20Z

PeterWilson:

'''Doris''' is a [[proper noun]], with several [[denotation]]s.
*As a [[forename]], it is used for girls - not often nowadays. As its first use in English (the [[Latin]] writer [[Juvenal]] used it as a name for his mistress) is recorded in [[Withycombe]] as being 1819, its fashion has been brief. In early use it was pronounced in a way that reflects a [[Greek]] origin, (Δωρἰς) with a [[long '-o-']]: 'DOH-ris' ({{IPA|ˈdaʊr ɪs}}): now it is always 'DORR-is' (/ˈdɒr ɪs/). Its meaning may be 'a woman of the [[Dorian - Doric|Dorian]] tribe', suggesting a learned origin in classical scholarship, or it may belong to the mythical character.
*'''Doris''' was the name of one of the geographic divisions of Greece in [[classic]]al and pre-classical times. Its precise meaning was largely mythological and ethnic, and varied over time to reflect various shifts of power.
*In Greek mythology, Doris was a minor goddess of the sea, the consort of Nereus and the mother of his daughters, the Nereids or sea-nymphs, who numbered fifty (in some versions, more).
Dorus, in Greek myth, son of Hellen, the eponymous ancestor of the Hellenes (Greeks), himself the son of Deucalion. Hellen became, by the nymph Orses, the father of the mythical ancestors of the three great branches of the Greek race, Aeolus (of the Aeolians), Xuthus (of the Achaeans and Ionians), and Dorus (of the Dorians). "Dōrus" [[Howatson, 2011]] <http://www.oxfordreference.com/search?siteToSearch=oso&q=Dorus&searchBtn=Search&isQuickSearch=true>

*An equivalent masculine [[forename]] is '''Dorian''', apparently invented by [[Oscar Wilde]] in his novel ''The Picture of Dorian Grey'' (1890 in ''Lippincott's Magazine'' and 1891 in book form), the story of an end-of century decadent youth. He is painted on account of his great beauty by Basil Hallward, and sells his soul to allow only the portrait to show traces of his vices and bad behaviour. It grows uglier and uglier, while its subject remains young and handsome. Finally he stabs it, and is discovered aged and corrupt, beside the portrait in its original state.
**'''Dorian''' in other use is the [[adjective]] meaning 'of Doris {''or'' Doria)', one of the divisions (as mentioned above) of ancient Greece. The '''Dorians''' were believed to have invaded the Greek peninsula from the north west. They, along with the Aeolians, Achaeans and Ionians, were one of the four main 'tribes' of classical Greece: the dispute between the Dorians, led by Sparta, and the Ionian (''or'' 'Attic') forces led by Athens known as the [[Peleponnesian War]] was the crucial event by which we may mark the division of the the fifth and the fourth centuries [[BCE]]. States claiming Dorian loyalty included Sparta, Corinth, Tiryns, Macedon, Crete, Asian Greece, Syracuse and many of the Greek colonies in Southern Italy. For more, see [[Dorian - Doric]].

Some specific gifts of the Dorians to culture include:
*The Doric dialect, of the classical Greek language; 'the Doric' wqas a slighting trerm to describe the [[Scots|Scots (language)]], as inferior to formal English;
*and two areas of the arts
**the Dorian mode, in music;
**the Doric order, in architecture - all three dealt with in rather more detail at [[Dorian - Doric]]

[[category:names]]
[[category:European culture]]
[[category:academic culture]]
[[category:pronunciation]]

Twelve Apostles

2022-11-27T16:56:03Z

PeterWilson:

The '''Twelve [[Apostle]]s''' were the first followers of Jesus.

They were: [[Saint Peter]], originally called Simon; [[Saint James#James the Greater|James]]; [[Saint John#John the Apostle|John]] (James and John were brothers, the "sons of Zebedee"); Andrew; Philip; Bartholomew; Matthew; [[Saint Thomas|Thomas]] (''Didymus'' (= 'the twin'), also called 'Doubting Thomas'); [[Saint James#James the Lesser|James]], son of Alphaeus; Thaddeus (or Judas, son of James); Simon the Zealot; and [[Judas]] Iscariot, the disciple who later betrayed Jesus.

After Jesus's crucifixion, Barnabas, Barsabas, Matthias and (later) Paul (the "Apostle of the Gentiles", called Saul before his conversion), were added.

{{wip}}
''Two forms must be distinguished: α. Old English apostol (whence Middle English apostel, -yl), < Romanic apostol(o or Latin apostolus ( < Greek ἀπόστολος a messenger, one sent forth, < ἀποστέλλειν to send away). β. the current apostle (found already c1225), < Old French (12th cent.) apostle (13th cent. apostre, modern apôtre); with the mutescence of final e, the two were confused, and in 16th cent. the Old French spelling prevailed. The popular form in Middle English was the aphetized postel, now obsolete.(Show Less)''. (''[[Oed]]''.)

[[category:saints]]
[[category:religion]]

Plebeian

2022-11-11T18:30:04Z

PeterWilson:

'''Plebeian''', which means 'of the people', or 'not aristocratic', or - [[pejorative]]ly - 'common', 'not refined', is pronounced with the stress on the second syllable, which is a '[[Long vowel - short vowel|long]]-i-' ''sound: 'ple-BEE-ern', {{IPA|plə 'biː ən}}.

'''Plebeian''' is derived from the [[Latin]] [[noun]] ''plebs'', which means 'the common people'.

::For another [[adjective]] derived from the [[Latin]] vocabulary for the Roman class system but meaning 'aristocratic', 'refined', see [[Patrician]].

[[category:pronunciation]]
[[category:etymology]]
[[Category:snobberies]]

Fantasia

2022-11-11T17:14:40Z

PeterWilson:

Two pronunciations are recognized in English of '''fantasia'''. The word is an Italian 0ne, adopted into English; it is essentially thr Italian form of the Englidh 'fantasy'.
*The more traditional (and native) pronunciation has the stress on the second syllable, which has the vowel of 'way' and 'say': fan( (’’or’’ er)nt ˈA-si-a {{IPA|fan( (’’or’’ er)nt ˈA-si-a}}.
*The more Italian pronunciation has the stress on the third syllable, wshose vowel is the continental '-i-', like the English '-ee-', as in 's'''ee'''' and 'k'''ey'''': 'fan-ter- ˈZEE-a {{IPA|{{IPA|fæ) nt ə ˈziː a}}

[[Category:pronunistion]]
[[Category:Italian words]]

{{wip}}

Rhopalia

2022-11-10T18:01:43Z

PeterWilson: Redirected page to Rhopalic sentence

#redirect [[Rhopalic sentence]]