Grammar

2007-01-31T11:52:51Z

PatrickLynch:

The [[noun]] '''grammar''' has several meanings. (There is a connected [[adjective]] '''grammatical'''.) Be clear about which is being used at any one time.

The basic meaning is "the structures, or rules, of a language by which words are brought together to make sense and to communicate." From this, several different shades of meaning have evolved.
*In [[linguistics]], '''grammar''' is the scientific description of a language. This is '''descriptive grammar'''. (There is even speculation that there my be a '''universal grammar''' underlying all human languages.)
*[[Figurative]]ly, there are grammars of subjects other than languages: a '''grammar''' of painting, for example, might be a handbook about how to understand visual art.
*"The old-fashioned definition of grammar as â€˜the art of speaking and writing a language correctlyâ€™" (''OED'') is still in everyday usage. It has given rise to the meaning: a standard by which we may judge an individual's quality of speech ("she speaks good grammar"; "his grammar is terrible".)
*'''Prescriptive grammar''' is teaching which is aimed to make the student speak "good grammar" in the sense above. It is frowned on in [[linguistics]], as there is no way of establishing what is 'good'. Many teachers will write the abbreviation <span style="color: #FF0000;">Gr!</span>

:in the margin to show a '''grammatical''' (in this sense) error.
*<u>A</u> '''grammar''' is sometimes a book to teach about language, either descriptively or prescriptively.

There is a course to teach the elements of '''grammar''' to users of AWE [[Grammar course|here]]. Many '''grammatical''' terms are defined. All can be accessed separately.

See also [[grammar school]].
[[category:grammar]] [[category:linguistic]]

Metaphor

2006-10-12T10:09:52Z

PatrickLynch:

Metaphor page

Main Page

2006-09-15T10:03:53Z

PatrickLynch:

<big>'''English Wiki'''</big>

Text to be identified for home page

Perhaps there will be some form of menu? I have put [[Abbreviations]] here just for somewhere to start.

I also imagine that there will be some explanation of how to use the wiki, layout and encouragement to ask questions.

----
The following has been left, for now, to provide easy access to support materials.

----

Consult the [http://meta.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaWiki_User%27s_Guide User's Guide] for information on using the wiki software.

== Getting started ==

* [http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:Configuration_settings Configuration settings list]
* [http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:FAQ MediaWiki FAQ]
* [http://mail.wikipedia.org/mailman/listinfo/mediawiki-announce MediaWiki release mailing list]

[[Category:Navigation]]

Main Page

2006-09-15T10:00:52Z

PatrickLynch:

<big>'''English Wiki'''</big>

[[Image:words1.jpg]]

Text to be identified for home page

Perhaps there will be some form of menu? I have put [[Abbreviations]] here just for somewhere to start.

I also imagine that there will be some explanation of how to use the wiki, layout and encouragement to ask questions.

----
The following has been left, for now, to provide easy access to support materials.

----

Consult the [http://meta.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaWiki_User%27s_Guide User's Guide] for information on using the wiki software.

== Getting started ==

* [http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:Configuration_settings Configuration settings list]
* [http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:FAQ MediaWiki FAQ]
* [http://mail.wikipedia.org/mailman/listinfo/mediawiki-announce MediaWiki release mailing list]

[[Category:Navigation]]

Abbreviations

2006-09-15T09:29:35Z

PatrickLynch:

==Abbreviations â€“ Academic, (Latin)==

Although abbreviations are frowned on in the text of academic writing, one exception has always been made. The use of Latin, the traditional language of scholarship in Europe, is still seen as being of higher prestige than mere English. Footnotes are often sprinkled with italicised abbreviations which do not relate to any modern English words, such as cf., etc. and q.v. The following table contains a list of some of the commoner ones, with the beginnings of an explanation for those who do not understand Latin.

{| border="1" cellpadding="2"

|+ Latin Abbreviations
! Abbreviation !! Latin word(s) !! English meaning !! Notes
|-
|ad lib.|| ad libitum || at pleasure, as you want || mostly used in Music: â€˜make it up [to fit]â€™
|-
| A.D. || Anno Domini || in the year of Our Lord (after Jesusâ€™ birth) || traditional Christian form of â€˜Common Eraâ€™ q.v.
|-
| cf. || confer || bring together; compare || .
|-
| cp. || compare || compare || .
|-
| ead. || eadem || the same (woman) || Rarely used. Feminine form of idem
|-
| et al. || et alia (or et alii) || and [the] others || (2 words; only 1 full stop)
|-
| etc. || et cetera|| and the rest || 1 word â€“ etcetera â€“ in English
|-
| et seq. || et sequentes || and [the] following || 2 words; 1 full stop
|-
| ibid. || ibidem || in the same place || i.e. this reference is to the same book as the last reference ||
|-
| id. || idem || the same [author] || properly, a male
|-
| inf. || infra || below || â€˜later in the textâ€™
|-
| loc. cit.|| loco citato || at the place quoted || i.e. the same place as the last reference: same text and same page.
|-
| n.b. || nota bene || note well; take note || .
|-
| op. cit. || opere citato || in the work cited || i.e. in the same text, not necessarily the same page.
|-
| p. a. || per annum || per year, annual || .
|-
| p.d. || per diem || per day, daily || .
|-
| p. p. || per procurationem || on behalf of || used in letters signed (e.g. by secretary) in the writerâ€™s absence
|-
| passim || passim || scattered around || â€˜to be found in many places in this bookâ€™
|-
| q.v. || quod vide || which see || i.e. â€˜look it upâ€™
|-
| s.v. || sub voce || under the word ( literally â€˜voiceâ€™) || â€˜look in the dictionary under this headwordâ€™
|-
| sup. || Supra || above || â€˜previously in this textâ€™
|-
| v. || Vide or videte || see || .
|-
| viz. || Videlicet || namely || â€˜in other wordsâ€™
||
|-
|}

===Extra===

There is also a group of abbreviations for the Latin names of some institutions, mostly Universities and Bishoprics. These are not much used these days; but you may see them in older academic books and journals. (In the days when the Ã©lite spoke Latin, and wanted to preserve an air of superiority over the rest, this was a convenient way of giving themselves an air of learning and mystery, and therefore of importance. Less prejudicially, perhaps, the habit is a hangover from when official documents were normally written in Latin. The Latin was often quite bad. So when the scribes had to name a place, they often half-invented a strange name for the area.) The authors of academic books often gave their qualifications as, for example M.A. ''Oxon.'' (indicating that they had graduated from Oxford). It was traditional for Bishops of the Church of England to sign documents with a cross and the abbreviation of the Latin name for the diocese. For example, ï€« Cantuar. (or more familiarly ï€« [Christian â€“ or personal â€“ name] Cantuar.) at the end of a letter meant that it had been signed by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Some of the abbreviations have been used for the names of English countries, in addresses , gazetteer entries, and so on â€“ ''Hants''. is used for Hampshire, and ''Northants'' for Northampton.

Note that the Latin, in both full and abbreviated forms, is given without capital letters. This reflects best practice in Latin; but the words are often given in English publications with capitals. Note also that the abbreviations should infallibly be given with a full stop â€“ at least in the traditional forms!

The list has not been given to encourage students to use these out-of-date words. Donâ€™t use them! It has been compiled in the hopes that it may explain some things that may puzzle academic readers. Some of the Latin words are very like the English of which they are versions (e.g. Lond. for London); but some are not at all obvious (Ebor. and Dunelm.) Others, like Cant., may be ambiguous.

The list may also be of interest. To somebody. Some historians may need it.

{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
|+ Latin Abbreviations - Locations
! Abbreviation !! Latin word(s) !! English meaning !! Notes
|-
| aberdon.|| aberdonensis || Aberdeen || One of the four ancient Universities of Scotland
|-
| cantab. || cantabrigiensis || Cambridge || The second oldest University in England
|-
| cantuar. or cant. || cantuariensis || Canterbury || The highest ranking Archbishop in the Church of England
|-
| dunelm. || dunelmensis || Durham || Bishopric; and third University in England, 1831
|-
| ebor. || eboracensis || York || The second highest ranking Archbishop in the Church of England
|-
| edin. || edinburgensis || Edinburgh || One of the four ancient Universities of Scotland
|-
| glasw. || glaswegiensis || Glasgow || One of the four ancient Universities of Scotland
|-
| Lond. or londin. || londiniensis || London || Bishopric
|-
| manc. || mancuniensis || Manchester || Bishopric. â€˜Mancunianâ€™ is also the English adj for Manchester.
|-
| norvi. || norvicensis || Norwich || Bishopric
|-
| novocast. || novocastriensis || Newcastle || .
|-
| oxon. || oxoniensis || Oxford || The oldest University in England; bishopric; county
|-
|}

== Abbreviations â€“ Acronyms ==

See [[Acronyms]]

See [[Another page]]

== Abbreviations â€“ Punctuation ==

This is an area where â€˜the rulesâ€™, or at least the expected conventions, are changing. In the early part of the twentieth century, a full stop was used after abbreviated words â€“ unless the last letter of an abbreviation was the last letter of the word, as in '''Mr''' as short for '''M'''iste'''r''', and '''Dr''' for '''D'''octo'''r'''. The practice since the advent of the computer has been much looser. Time and motion studies have encouraged organisations to omit the unnecessary full stops that used to fill minutes in the day of a typist. Acronyms like NATO (for North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) and short titles like BBC are rarely seen now in their traditional forms of N.A.T.O. and B.B.C.

So unless you have an editor or a teacher who maintains the old-fashioned convention, donâ€™t bother with full stops in abbreviations.

In the older style, envelopes always had many full stops â€“ and commas. Schoolchildren in the 1950s used to be castigated for the omission of the stop in '''Ave.''' â€“ and for its inclusion in '''Rd''' This led to heated debates about whether the â€˜tâ€™ in '''St''' (for â€˜streetâ€™) represented the first â€˜tâ€™ or the last. My own teacher was quite clear, not to say firm, that in '''Ave.''' the â€˜eâ€™ was the first in that word, not the final one, and that therefore the abbreviation should be written with a full stop. This is how pedants are made!

'''See also:''' [[Addresses#Adresses â€“ Punctuation|Address - Punctuation]]

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